霍布斯、洛克和盧梭之比較

Hobbes,Locke,RousseauECON205WSummer2006Prof.Cunningham1ThomasHobbes(1588-1679)PersonalBackgroundMostImportantWritings:TheElementsofLaw(1640)DeCive

(TheCitizen,1642)Leviathan(1651)OverallObjectives:ToputmoralandpoliticalphilosophyonascientificbasisContributetothestability,peace,andwelfareofmankind2ApproachFeltthatearlierthinkers(excludingMachiavelliandcertainothers)hadfailedbecausetheyattemptedtobasetheirtheoriesofsocietyonmankind’shighestaspirations.Createdacodeofnaturallawasmorallybindinganddeterminingthepurposeofsociety.Separatedhisnotionofnaturallawfromhumanperfection.Developsapsychologyofhumanpassionsorinterests.3Approach(2)Believedhehaduncoveredthebasisofhumanbehaviorandhumannature.Usedtheseasassumptionstobuildhistheory.Believespeoplehavecompetinginterests,andthishasimplications.The“StateofNature.”4ImplicationsTopreventchaos,society,thoughpoliticalandeconomicorganizationusetheforceandcoerciontoholdsocietytogether.Peopleoughttobewillingtogiveupthesamerightsastheyexpectotherstogiveup,andouttobesatisfiedwithjustasmuchlibertywithrespecttoothersasothershavewithrespecttothem.Agreementtothisbythemembersofsocietyformsthesocialcontract.5SocialContractThesocialcontractisnotbetweenthecitizensandtherulingpower.Itisacontractcitizensmakewitheachothertoaccepttheruleofcentralauthority.Theminorityacceptsthemajoritydecision.Asocietysounitedformsasinglebody,acommonwealth,aleviathan.6SocialContract(2)Theruleristheabsoluteauthority.Partsofthesocialcontractprocess.Validityofthecontact.Thecontractisbindingonlyifitspurposeisfulfilled—i.e.,thatthecitizensaresecure.7TheSovereignandCitizensRightsofthesovereign:EnforcementofLawLegislativepowerJudicialpowerSovereignisnotsubjecttothelaws.Citizensretaincertain“inalienablerights”or“retainedrights”8EntitlementTheoryDistributivejustice.Theguaranteeofperformanceoncontractsisthebasisofalljustice.Withoutrespectfor(private)propertyrights,everyonehasaclaimoneverything,andchaosreigns.Justiceisnotequaloutcomes,butratherequalityofprocessandequalityofopportunity.9DistributiveJusticeInthestateofnature,peopleshareakindofequality.Inequalityisaproductofcivillaw.Regardless,peopleperceivethemselvesasequal,andwillenterintocontractswillinglyonlyunderequalterms.Doctrinesofinequalitydon’twork.10Hobbes’EconomicContributionsFocusonpeopleastheyare.PredecessortoTheoryofMoralSentiments(Smith)EntitlementtheoryofjusticeBasicofalljusticeisenforcementofpropertyrightsSocialcontractwithretainedrightsEqualityopportunity11JohnLocke(1632-1704)BackgroundBasicideas:RationalagentmodelCoincidenceofself-interestandgeneralinterestReactsmoretoSirRobertFilmerthantoHobbes.Locke’smessage:Allgovernmentislimitedinitspowersandexistsonlybytheconsentofthegoverned.Allpeoplearebornfree.12GreatWorksTwoTreatisesonGovernment(1690)ALetterConcerningToleration(1689)SomeConsiderationsoftheConsequencesoftheLoweringofInterestandRaisingtheValueofMoney(1691)13TwoTreatisesonGov’tBeginswiththequestions:“Whatispoliticalpower?Whatistheappropriateendandobjectiveofcivilgovernment?Answers:Politicalpoweristherighttomakelaws,enforcingthematpenaltyofdeath.Establishmentofpenaltiesrelatedtoregulatingandpreservingpropertyanddefendingthecommonwealthfromforeignattack,allforthepublicgood.14TheStateofNatureContrastwithHobbes’view.Thestateofnatureisastateofperfectfreedomandequality.Theworldwasneverwithoutpoliticalorsocialstructure.Politicalandsocialstructurearisenaturallywithhumankind.People“…livingtogetheraccordingtoreason,withoutacommonsuperioronearthwithauthoritytojudgebetweenthem,isproperlythestateofnature.”15TheStateofWarItistheuseofforcewithoutright.Inpeace,thereisnouseofforcewithoutright.Allowsthatthereare“inconveniences”inthestateofnatureinwhichpeoplemayneedtobejudgesintheirowncase.Itsuchsituations,thestateofnaturemaybeindistinguishablefromthestateofwar.16Self-PreservationEveryoneshouldpursuetheirownpreservation,butisalsoobligatedtopursuethepreservationoftherestofhumankind.Whatifthesedutiesconflict?Aggressionagainstothersifaviolationofthelawofnature.Acourseofconductthattendstowardself-preservationisinaccordwithnature,whichisthelawofnature.17LockeonPropertyNaturaldistributionTheoryofprivatepropertyrightsBeginswiththeassertionthateverypersonownsthemselvesandtheirlabor.Thisisthefoundationofallotherproperty.Propertyacquiredthroughjustacquisition,earnedthroughuseofselfandlabor.Meansoflimitingaccumulationisonlyrequiredifthereislessthanasuperabundance.Onlylaborcancreateproperty.Transferdoesnotcreateproperty.18LockeonMoneyMoneyarisesbymutualconsent.Itisasocialinstitutionthatarisesourofmutualtrust.Moneyaroseandhastenedtheendofthecommon.Moneyencouragespeopletoproduceasurplus.Moneyisanabilitytoaccumulate,leadingtoaninequalityofwealth.Peopleacceptthisbecauseitisinthecommoninterest.19TheEconomicProblemNatureispowerlesstoprovideforitsownmainintention—theincreaseofmankind.Naturecannotextenditsownlimits.(Problemofscarcity?)Peoplecanmakeincreasepossible,solvingtheeconomicproblem.Thecontinuationofthenaturalstateisimpossible.Growthisnecessary.20PoliticalPowerMustbelimited.Majorityrule.SeparationofPowers.Thereisnofreedomwherethereisnolaw.21KeyContributionstoEconomicsRationalagent.Inthelongrun,self-interestandgeneralinterestcoincide.Peoplearebasicallygood,butself-interested.Idealstructureforsocietyistopreservepropertyrightsandletself-interestreign.Entitlementtheoryofdistributivejustice.Equaltreatmentandprocess.Focusongrowth.Politicalpowershouldbelimited,butfreedomandeconomicprogressrequirelaw.22JeanJacquesRousseau

(1712-1778)Concernedwiththerelationshipofthestateandtheindividual.Believesthatsocietyisbaseduponsomeimplicitcontract.Thecontractdeliversusfromsome“priorstateofnature”.Thecontractimpliesthattheruleristhepeople’sagent,nottheirmaster.23LifeandWorkRousseau’slife.Confessions(1784)Emile(1762)TheSocialContract(1762)24Rousseau’sViewofHumanNatureDiscourseontheOriginandFoundationoftheInequalityofMankindCivilizationbroughtinequalityandotherevils.Peoplehaveasenseoffreedom,afacultyforself-improvement,anaturalfeelingofcompassionandself-love.Thekeysocialbondhasbeenthedevelopmentofprivateproperty.“Thefirstmanwho,havingenclosedapieceofgroundbethoughthimselfofsaying‘thisismine’,andfoundpeoplesimpleenoughtobelievehim,wastherealfounderofcivilsociety.”25HumanNature(2)Privatepropertyisthesourceofallevil.Establishmentoftheinstitutionofprivatepropertyleadtotheestablishmentofsociety,government,andlaw.Theonlysolutionistoabandonprivateproperty.26Rousseau’s“StateofNature”Beforepeoplelivedinsocieties,theiractivitieswerelargelydominatedbyunreflectivepursuitsoftheirownindividualwelfare.Theprincipleconcernofpeoplewasself-preservation.Therewerenorightsormoralrelationstoberespected.Cooperationwasimpossible.Inthisenvironment,itisimpossibleforhumancharactertodevelop,andpeopletoriseabovetheirbaseinstincts.27Rousseau’sSocialContract“Manisbornfree,andheiseverywhereinchains.”Thecontractliberatespeoplefromtherudestateofnature.Socialisticviewoftherelationshipbetweentheindividualandsociety.Thecontractdoesnotchangepeo