二語習得論文

ifCollegeofForeignLanguagesandLiteratureNorthwestNormalUniversity題目：MotivationandSecondLanguageAcquisition班級：12級英語5班姓名：王文秀任課教師：曹依民提交日期：2015年7月3日評語及成績：簽名：日期：MotivationandSecondLanguageAcquisition摘要在對第二語言學習的研究中，學習動機被認為是語言學習者個體因素中最具能動性的因素之一，它受到了眾多研究者和教育工作者的關注。隨著全球化的發(fā)展，第二語言的重要性顯而易見。這就要求我們要深入研究了解動機與第二語言學習。本文將從理論和實際應用的角度研究第二語言習得中的動機問題。本文先從學習動機的定義出發(fā)闡述不同語言學家對動機不同角度的定義，包括被語言學家公認為合理的由Gardner&Lambert所下的定義，以及從人本主義角度出發(fā)的馬斯洛的需求理論中對動機的定義，從而發(fā)現(xiàn)這些定義的局限性。在闡述定義的基礎上，文章從行為主義、人本主義及認知角度分別運用強化理論、需求理論及歸因理論來研究及分析動機，說明對第二語言研究的意義。隨后采用語言學家Keller對影響學習動機的四大主要因素的劃分，從興趣、相關性、期待及對結果的滿意度簡要闡述影響學習的因素及其影響。本文旨在幫助第二語言學習者意識到動機在二語習得的重要性。關鍵字：動機，第二語言習得，定義，影響因素AbstractMotivationisoneoftheimportantaffectivefactorswidelystudiedonthesecondlanguageacquisitionbylanguagelearningresearchersinthepastyears.Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,theimportanceofthesecondlanguageacquisitionisobvious.Soitisnecessaryforustoprofoundmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Thispaperwillresearchmotivationinthesecondlanguageacquisitionfromthetheorytoapplication,beginningwithitsdifferentdefinitionsgivenbydifferentlinguistsonthebaseofvarioustheories.Itincludesthewell-accepteddefinitiongivenbyGardner&Lambert,popularonedefinedbyMaslowfromhumanisticperspectiveandotherdefinitionsproposedrespectivelybydifferentlinguists.Intheprocess,thelimitationofthesedefinitionswillbefound.Then,thethesisfocusesonthestudyandanalysisofmotivationsfrombehavioral,humanisticandcognitiveperspectiveswiththeapplicationofreinforcementtheory,needtheoryandattributiontheorytoprovethesignificanceofresearchingsecondlanguageacquisition.Then,theauthoranalysesaffectingmotivationfactors，includinginterest,relevance,expectanceandsatisfactionoroutcomes,whicharedividedbylinguistKeller.Thispaperaimstohelplanguagelearnersrealizetheimportanceofmotivationinthesecondlanguageacquisition.Keywords:motivation,secondlanguageacquisition,definition,affectingfactors1.IntroductionMotivationplaysavitalroleintheforeignlanguageacquisition.Alotoflinguistsandpsychologistsbelievemotivationisonefactoraffectinglanguagelearningefficacy,theimpulsestimulatingpersonstoconductcertainactivities,akindofinnerpowerpromotingforeignlanguagelearning,andatypeofconsciousandpositivestateofpsychologyinlearningactivity.Regardedasoneimportantelementinlanguagelearning,motivationhasbeenexploredformorethanfiftyyearsbyalotoflinguists,buttheawkwardsituationstillexistsinpresentlanguagelearningsetting.Manyexpertshavedonealotofresearcharounditandmadecontributionstoit.Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,theimportanceofthesecondlanguageacquisitionisobvious.Soitisnecessaryforustoprofoundmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Thispaperaimstoexploreandanalyseslanguagelearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives:behaviorism,humanismandcognition,makingreferencetovariousclassificationsanddefinitionsofmotivation.Thethesisismadeupofsixpartsbesidesanintroduction,aconclusionandabibliography.Parttwoisliteraturereview.Partthreepresentssomebasictheoriesinmotivation.Inthispart,behaviorism,humanismandcognitionarediscussed.Partfourisanalysisoffactorsaffectingmotivationindetail.Itconsistsofinterest,relevance,expectanceandsatisfactionoroutcomes.Thispaperpaysattentiononthreequestions:Whatisthedefinitionofmotivation?Whatarefactorsaffectingmotivation?Howdoesthemotivationaffectsecondlanguageacquisition?LiteraturereviewAlthoughtheterm"motivation"isfrequentlyusedineducationcontexts,thereislittleagreementamongexpertsastoitsexactmeaning.Variousdefinitionsofmotivationhavebeenproposedoverthecourseofdecadesofresearch.WhatweconcernaboutmotivationismainlyconfinedtoEFLstudy,soweshouldputouremphasisonspecificcategory.Fromthemiddleof20thcentury,especiallyaround1990s,newdefinitionsappearedwiththedevelopmentsinpsychology.Motivationwasthenredefinedasadynamicprocessratherthanastaticinnerstate.However,thereisstilldisagreementaboutthedefinitionofmotivation.2.1DefinitionsofMotivationMotivationisoneofthemaindeterminantsofsecondlanguagelearningachievementand,accordingly,thelastthreedecadeshaveseenaconsiderableamountofresearchinvestigatingthenatureandroleofmotivationintheL2learningprocess.MuchofthisresearchhasbeeninitiatedandinspiredbytwoCanadianpsychologists,RobertGardnerandWallaceLambert,who,togetherwiththeircolleaguesandstudents,groundedmotivationresearchinasocialpsychologicalframework.Gardner'sDefinitionIt'sthefactthatGardner'sdefinitionofmotivationinSecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)isthebestknown,frequently-quotedandunderrevisionwiththetimepassing.GardnerandLambert(1972)define‘motivation'intermsoftheL2learner'soverallgoalororientation.Gardneralsoproposedthatallthesethreecomponentswerenecessarytoproperlydescribemotivationinlanguagelearning.Anysingleoneofthemcannotreflecttruemotivation,sotheymustco-existwitheachother.Eightyearslater,GardnerandMaclntyre(1993)definedmotivationas"thedesiretoachieveagoal,effortextendedinthisdirectionandsatisfactionwiththetask."Gardner'sdefinitionisbasedonsocialpsychologystressingthesocialnatureofL2learning.Inhisview,apartfromlearninggrammarandlanguageskills,thelearningofanL2involvesanalterationinself-image,theadoptionofnewsocialandculturalbehaviorswhichhaveasignificantimpactonthesocialnatureofthelearner.Asweknow,Gardnerandhiscolleagues'researchesareconductedamongtypicallybilingualsetting---Canada,wherelearners'languagelearningisgreatlyinfluencedbythelearners'attitudetowardsthetargetlanguage,thereforethereisinevitablelimitationsexistinginthisdefinitionbynature.Besidesitsshortcomings,Gardnerandhiscolleagueshadmadegreatcontributionstothemotivationresearchinthelate1980s;othertheoristsbegantochallengehistheoryandre-conceptualizetheconstructofL2learningmotivation.Brown'sDefinitionBrown(1981)identifiesthreetypesofmotivation:(1)globalmotivation,whichconsistsofageneralorientationtothegoaloflearningaL2;(2)situationalmotivation,whichvariesaccordingtothesituationinwhichlearningtakesplace(themotivationassociatedwithclassroomlearningisdistinctfromthemotivationinvolvedinnaturalisticlearning);(3)taskmotivation,whichisthemotivationforperformingparticularlearningtasks.2.1.3WilliamsandBurden'sDefinitionWilliamsandBurden(1997)definedmotivationas"astateofcognitiveandemotionalarousal,whichleadstoaconsciousdecisiontoact,andwhichgivesrisetoaperiodofsustainedintellectualand/orphysicaleffort,inordertoattainapreviouslysetgoalorgoals.”Inordertomakethisdefinitionmoreclearly,WilliamsandBurden(1997)presentedathree-stagemodelofinteractivefactorswithinthesocialcontext:reasonsfordoingsomething decidingtodosomething---sustainingtheeffortorpersisting.Fromthismodel,wecanseethatfirstlytheremustbesomereasonstoimpellearnerstoundertakeaparticularactivity;secondly,weshouldconsiderwhatisactuallyinvolvedindecidingtodosomethingandanindividualmayhavestrongreasonsfordoingsomethingbutwithouttakingactualaction;thirdly,peopleneedtosustaintheeffortrequiredtocompletetheactivity.Inthismodel,"decidingtodosomething"playsacentralrole.2.1.4Maslow'sDefinitionAccordingtoMaslow,"motivationisconstant,neverending,fluctuatingandcomplex,anditisanalmostuniversalcharacteristicofparticularlyeveryorganicstateofaffairs.”Andhis"needtheory"canclearlyandsatisfactorilyexplainthelanguagelearners'motivationinallthelearning2.1.5DornyeiandOtto'sDefinitionDornyeiandOtto(1998)statedthat"inageneralsense,motivationcanbedefinedasthedynamicallychanginginitiates,directs,coordinates,amplifies,cumulativearousalinapersonthatterminatesandevaluatesthecognitiveprocesseswherebyinitialwishesanddesiresareselected,prioritized,operationalizedandsuccessfullyorunsuccessfullyactedout"Inthisdefinition,motivationisviewedasadynamicprocessinwhichmanyvariablesinfluencethelearner'sperformancebuttheydonotmentionthesustainingofthelearningmotivation.2.1.6Keller'sDefinitionKeller(1983)definedmotivationas"Motivationreferstothechoicespeoplemakeastowhatexperiencesorgoalstheywillapproachoravoid,andthedegreeofefforttheywillexertinthisrespect."Besidesdefinitionsgivenabove,KanferandAckerman(1989)madeitmoreexplicitbydefiningmotivationas"thedirectionofattentionaleffort,theproportionoftotalattentionaleffortdirectedtothetask(intensity),andtheextenttowhichattentionalefforttowardthetaskismaintainedovertime(orpersistence)."Oxforddefinedmotivationas"whatmakesstudentswanttolearnlanguagesandwhatcausesthemtoputforththeefforttopersistinthisdifficultadventure"(Oxford,1996,p.1).AccordingtoH.WBernard,"motivationreferstoallthosephenomenawhichareinvolvedinthestimulationofactiontowardsparticularobjectiveswherepreviouslytherewaslittleornomovementtowardsthosegoals."Inviewofallthesedefinitions,wecangettheinformationthatlanguagelearningmotivationisthereasonforlearningthelanguage,thecentralforceorinnerpowerthatimpulsespeopletogointhelanguagelearningprocess,howmuchconsciousintellectualandphysicaleffortthelearnersmaketoattainapreviouslysetgoalandhowlongthelearnerkeepsthiseffort.TheoriesonMotivationMotivationisavastandcomplicatedsubjectwithmanytheoriesineducationalpsychology.Themainapproachesarebehavioral,humanisticandcognitiveones,whichhighlightdifferentdimensionsofmotivation.However,thereisnoabsolutely,straightforwardlyandunanimouslyacceptedconceptofmotivation,letalonethedescriptionofitsnaturewithinoneframework.Differentfromtheinstincttheorystudyingtheinnatecharacteristicsofmotivationborninhumanbeings,thebehaviorismattachesmoreimportancetotheexternalfactorsforthestudyofmotivation.BehaviorismBehaviorism,atheoryaboutanimalandhumanlearningwaywhichonlyfocusesonobjectivelyobservablebehaviorsanddiscountsmentalactivities,hasanimportantimpactonpsychology,educationandlanguageteaching.BehavioristslikeSkinnertakethenotionthatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences,sothelearnerswillrepeatthedesiredbehaviorifpositivereinforcement(apleasantconsequence)followthebehavior.BehavioristsprefertoexplainhumanbehaviorswithformulaS---R,believingmotivationisakindofimpulsiveforcearousedbyoutsidestimuli.AccordingtoSkinner,motivatedbehaviorresultsfromtheconsequencesofthesimilarpreviousbehaviorandinotherwords,theconsequencesofpreviousbehaviorinfluencelearners.Oncelearnersobtainpositivereinforcementforcertainbehavior,theytendtorepeatitwithvigor,viceversalearnerstendtoloseinterest,andevadetheirperformanceandstudy.Behavioralinterpretationsoflearningcanprovidereasonstoexplainwhysomelearnersreactfavorablytoparticularsubjectsbutdislikeothers.Somelearnersmayenteraclassroomwithafeelingofdelight,whileothersfeeluncomfortableoraversivetoit.B.F.Skinnersuggestedthatsuchdifferencescouldbetracedbacktotheirpreviousexperiences,arguingthatthelearnerwholovedthissubjecthadbeenshapedtorespondthatwaybyaseriesofpositiveexperienceswiththesubjectwhilethelearnerdislikingthesubjectmighthavesufferedaseriesofnegativeexperiences.Inbrief,reinforcementmethodsareprobablybestusedwithlearnerswhoexhibithighanxietyaboutlearning,poormotivationtolearn,orahistoryofacademicfailures.Anditiseffectivemethodsfrequentlyusedbyteachersinclassroomsetting.HumanismMotivationandneedsarecloselyrelated.Ontheonehand,weregardmotivationasthefulfillmentofakindofneeds,andontheotherhand,humanneedsserveasdrivesorincentiveswhichimpulseonetotakeanaction.Whenwestudymotivationfromtheperspectiveofhumanism,itisnecessarytomentionhierarchyofneedsproposedbyMaslow.Heformulatedafive-foldhierarchyofhumanneedswhichbeganwithbiologicalneedsandmadeprogressupwardtotheself-actualization.AccordingtoMaslow,"motivationisconstant,neverending,fluctuatingandcomplexandthatitisanalmostuniversalcharacteristicofparticularlyeveryorganicstateofaffairs."Hisneedtheorycanclearlyandsatisfactorilyexplainthelanguagelearners'motivationinalllearningenvironments.Theneedhierarchyisasfollows(S.S.Chauhan,1985):itprovidesausefulwayofthinkingaboutthefactorsthatactivatehumanaction.IntermsofMaslow'sneedshierarchy，needsforforeignorsecondlanguagelearningwouldmainlycenteronthepsychologicalaspectsofthesecondlevelinthehierarchyand,whenthoseneedsaresatisfied,wouldrelatetothethird,fourth,andfifthlevelsinthepyramid.Additionally,astheneedsatonelevelaremet,theirimportanceinmotivatingindividualdecreases,andthenexthigherlevelofneedsbecomesthestrongestsourceofgoal-directedbehaviors.InviewofMaslow'sneedhierarchy，failuretosatisfystudents'needsforsafetyandsecurityintheforeignorsecondlanguagelearningsettingprobablyhindertheirrisk-taking,accordingly,thesepsychologicalinsecuritywillmakeL2learnersveryanxious(MacItyre&Gardner,1991)andtheywillregressintheirneeds,motivation,andperformanceintheclassroom.CognitionAsitsnameimplies,cognitiveapproach,emphasizingmentalprocessesplacesitselfinprocesses.Sincethe1960s,themechanisticapproachtohumanmotivationhasgivenwaytoamorecognitiveapproach.Thecommonelementsharedbyparticularcognitivetheoristsisthebeliefthatitisnecessarytoexamineaclassofinterveningvariableswhenexplainingbehavior.ThetheoreticalfoundationofacognitiveapproachcanbetracedtothewritingsofKant(31)andtophenomenologicalthinking.UandeGeerandJaspersnotethatcognitivetheoryrangesfromneobehavioristicmediationtophenomenologicalinterpretation.Acognitivetheoryofbehaviorassumesthatthefirststageinthechainofeventsinitiatedbythestimulussituationandresultedinthebehavioralactistheconstructionofcognitiverepresentationofthedistalenvironment.Thelatereventsinthechainarearoused,modifiedandguidedbythiscognitiverepresentation.Thecognitiverepresentationthusactsastheeffectiveenvironmentwhicharousesmotivesandemotions,andguidesovertbehaviortowarditstargetorgoal.Thefamoustheoryannotatingmotivationisattributiontheory.People,afterfinishingonetask,arelikelytolookforthereasonwhyhecansucceedorsufferfailure,whichisthefirstobjectivebase,onwhichpsychologistattribution.F.Heider,theoneproposingattributiontheory,believedexplorepeoplepossessedtwoneedsofunderstandingworldandcontrollingenvironment.Abilityandeffortareinternalcharacteristics;taskdifficultyandluckbelongtoexternalfactors;taskdifficultyandabilityarestablefactors,whereaseffortandluckchangewithvariablesituations.Accordingtoattributiontheory,highersatisfactionoccurswhensuccessisself-attributedthanthoseattributedtoexternalfactors.Whenpeoplebelievethemselves---ratherthanluck,fate,theteachers,oraneasytesthavecreatedthesuccessfulperformance,theyarehappierwiththemselvesandtheirskills.Attributiontheorycanexplain,tosomeextent,thephenomenonthatfailureorsuccesscanhavedifferenteffectsondifferentindividuals.Italsogivesimplicationsforteachersinteachingbyhelpingstudentssettingupcorrectattribution.Manytheoristsadvocatethattheconstructofmotivationisnotasasingleentitybutasamultifactoraloneandtheyapplydifferentwaystoprobeintomotivation.Besidesthemotivationtheoriesdiscussedabove,Heider'snaivepsychology,Jones&Davis'correspondencetheoryandKelley'scovariationtheoryallshedlightonthemotivation,explaininghumanbeingslearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives.AnalysisoffactorsaffectingmotivationForthelastfewdecades,researchonmotivationinthefieldofsecondlanguagehasbeenstronglyinfluencedbyGardner'sSocio-EducationalModel.However,otherresearchers,suchasCrookesandSchmidt(1991),regardmotivationasamuchmorecomplexconstructthantheoneculturallyrelateddichotomy,especiallyindifferentcontextsofforeignlanguagelearning.CrookesandSchmidt(1991)thenproposedanexpandeddefinitionoflanguagelearningmotivationbyapplyingKeller'seducation-orientedtheoryofmotivationastheirbase.Keller(1983)identifiedfourmajordeterminantsofmotivation:①interestinthelanguagebasedonexistingattitudes,experience,andbackgroundknowledgeonthelearners'part;②relevance,whichinvolvesperceptionthatpersonalneeds,suchasachievement,affiliationandpowerbeingmetbylearningthelanguage;③expectancyofsuccessorfailure;and?outcomes,i.e.,theextrinsicorintrinsicrewardsfeltbythelearner.InterestInterest,oneofimportantinnerincentives,playsaveryimportantroleinthelanguagelearningprocess.Interestinlearningcanbedefinedasadesiretoacquirenewinformationandtofindoutnewobjects,eventsandideas.Thismayinvolveapproachingandacquiringinformationaboutsomethingnew,seekingnewinformationconcerningsomethingthatthestudentshavealreadyknownabout(Katherine,1981).DirectInterestvs.IndirectInterestInterestcanbedividedintotwocategories---directinterestandindirectone.Directinterest,resultingfromdirectlearningmaterialsandthelearningprocess,canattractlearners'attentionandarousetheirinterestquickly,butitcannotlastforalongtime.Forexample,newinformationcanprovokelearners'interestdirectly,butwhenlearnersmeetdifficultiesinthelearningprocessorhavenotmadeanyprogressforalongtime,theywilllosetheinterestinitevenabandonitIndirectinterest,resultingfromstudentsthemselvesandlastingmuchlonger,canspurlearnerstodevotemorestrengthandenergytostudy.Withindirectinterest,highlymotivatedstudentscansettheirownlearninggoalsandtasks,adoptvariouslearningstrategiesandmakefulluseofanychancestoenhancetheirabilityorenlargetheirknowledgehorizon.Hence,cultivatingstudents'indirectinterestcandofavorforlanguagelearning.SignificanceofInterestDeciandRyanheldthatinterestwas"animportantdirectroleinintrinsicallymotivatedbehaviorinwhichpeoplenaturallyapproachactivitiesthatattractthem".Inotherwords,interestisbelievedtobeanecessaryandefficientmeanstoprovokelearners'intrinsicmotivation,soitisamanifestationofinborncapabilitiesintermsofcompetency,self-assessmentaswellaspersonalaccomplishments.ItisacknowledgedthatwhetherthestudentsareinterestedinEnglishlanguagelearningdirectlyinfluencesthesuccessorfailureofEnglishteachingandstudents'performance.Onlystudents'interestinlanguagelearningisinspired,willtheytaketheinitiativeorbecomeactiveinlearningEnglishwell.RelevanceThesecondelementisrelevance,whichreferstotheextenttowhichthestudentsfeelthattheinstructionisconnectedwithimportantpersonalneeds,values,orgoals.Itisaprerequisitefor"sustainedmotivation"andrequirestheperceptionofthelearnersthattheirpersonalneedsaresatisfiedbythelearningsituation.Relevance,atamacro-level,associateswiththemotivationtheoriesofneedshierarchy,achievementmotivation,competencemotivation,andreinforcementvalue;attheleveloflearningsituation,itreferstotheextenttowhichtheclassroominstructionandcoursecontentareseentobeconductivetoachievingthegoal,thatis，tomastertheL2Thereareseveralkindsoflearners'needs:instrumentalneeds,whicharemetwhenthelearnershavethebeliefthatthecontentofalessoniswhattheywant;needsforachievement,forautonomy,foraffiliation,forendurance,foraggression,forpower,andsoon.Keller(1983a,1983b)proposedthatmotivationcouldbeenhancedwhenstudentsperceivedthatthelearningactivitiescouldsatisfytheirbasicneeds,suchasneedsforachievement,power,oraffiliation.Inotherwords,teachingmaterials,teachingmethods,levelofdifficultyshouldbecorrespondenttoorrelatedwithstudents'needsandlearninggoals.ExpectanceThethirddeterminantisexpectancywhichreferstostudents'perceivedlikelihoodofachievingsuccessthroughpersonalcontrolandisrelatedtothelearner'sself-confidenceandself-efficacyatagenerallevel;itconcernsperceivedtaskdifficulty,theamountofeffortrequired,theamountofavailableassistanceandguidance,theteacher'spresentationofthetask,andfamiliaritywiththetasktypeatthelevelofthelearningsituation.AccordingtoKeller(1983a),thiscategoryencompassesthemotivationtheoriesoflocusofcontrol,attributiontheory,learnedhelplessness,personalcausation,andself-efficacy.SatisfactionorOutcomesThefourthdeterminantofmotivationissatisfactionoroutcomesthatarerelatedwiththeextrinsicorintrinsicrewardfeltbythelearner.Activitiesforwhichthemotivatingforcesareoutcomeshavebeenreferredtoasextrinsicallymotivated,asopposedtothosewhichareintrinsicallymotivated.Satisfactionoroutcomesincludethesatisfactionofgoalfulfillmentsanditseffectsonmotivationforinvolvinginsimilaractivitiesinthefuture.Thelearnerswillbecomeunmotivatedorlessmotivatedoncetheoutcomesoftheirgreateffortsareinconsistentwiththeiroriginalexpectations,thegradingsystemissubjectiveandarbitrary,ortheintrinsicallymotivatedpersonisconfinedintoanexternallycontrolledcontingencysystem.Differentfactorsandvariousteachingmethodshavecloserelationshipwithoutcomes.Kellerdeemedthatunexpected,noncontingentrewardsratherthananticipated,salient,task-contingentrewards;verbalpraiseandinformativefeedbackratherthanthreats,surveillance,orexternalperformanceevaluationcouldgivelearnerbettersatisfactionoroutcomes.Inordertomaintainagoodlearningsettingtomeetlearner'ssatisfaction,consistentstandardsandconsequencesfortaskaccomplishmentshouldbeheld.Allowingstudentstouseanewlylearntskillinarealisticsettingcanarousetheirsensesofsatisfactiontoalargedegree.5.ConclusionThispaperhasexploredandanalyzedlanguagelearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives:behaviorism,humanismandcognition,makingreferencetovariousclassificationsanddefinitionsofmotivation.Onthebasisoftheabovediscussion,weknowthatmotivationisoneoftheimportantaffectivefactorswidelystudiedonthesecondlanguageacquisition.Theinfluenceofmotivationtotheforeignlanguagelearnersisprofound.Thispaperpresentsastudyofmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Afterstudyingthispaper,wecanconcludethat:First,thedefinitionofmotivationisvariousfromdifferentperspectives.Andthereissomelimitationforthesedefinitions,su