考研英語閱讀及翻譯

考研英語閱讀（1）Toparaphrase18th-centurystatesmanEdmundBurke,"allthatisneededforthetriumphofamisguidedcauseisthatgoodpeopledonothing."Onesuchcausenowseekstoendbiomedicalresearchbecauseofthetheorythatanimalshaverightsrulingouttheiruseinresearch.Scientistsneedtorespondforcefullytoanimalrightsadvocates,whoseargumentsareconfusingthepublicandtherebythreateningadvancesinhealthknowledgeandcare.Leadersoftheanimalrightsmovementtargetbiomedicalresearchbecauseitdependsonpublicfunding,andfewpeopleunderstandtheprocessofhealthcareresearch.Hearingallegationsofcrueltytoanimalsinresearchsettings,manyareperplexedthatanyonewoulddeliberatelyharmananimal.Forexample,agrandmotherlywomanstaffingananimalrightsboothatarecentstreetfairwasdistributingabrochurethatencouragedreadersnottouseanythingthatcomesfromoristestedinanimals-nomeat,nofur,nomedicines.Askedifsheopposedimmunizations,shewantedtoknowifvaccinescomefromanimalresearch.Whenassuredthattheydo,shereplied,"ThenIwouldhavetosayyes."Askedwhatwillhappenwhenepidemicsreturn,shesaid,"Don'tworry,scientistswillfindsomewayofusingcomputers."Suchwell-meaningpeoplejustdon'tunderstand.Scientistsmustcommunicatetheirmessagetothepublicinacompassionate,understandableway-inhumanterms,notinthelanguageofmolecularbiology.Weneedtomakecleartheconnectionbetweenanimalresearchandagrandmother'shipreplacement,afather'sbypassoperationababy'svaccinations,andevenapet'sshots.Tothosewhoareunawarethatanimalresearchwasneededtoproducethesetreatments,aswellasnewtreatmentsandvaccines,animalresearchseemswastefulatbestandcruelatworst.Muchcanbedone.Scientistscould"adopt"middleschoolclassesandpresenttheirownresearch.Theyshouldbequicktorespondtoletterstotheeditor,lestanimalrightsmisinformationgounchallengedandacquireadeceptiveappearanceoftruth.Researchinstitutionscouldbeopenedtotours,toshowthatlaboratoryanimalsreceivehumanecare.Finally,becausetheultimatestakeholdersarepatients,thehealthresearchcommunityshouldactivelyrecruittoitscausenotonlywell-knownpersonalitiessuchasStephenCooper,whohasmadecourageousstatementsaboutthevalueofanimalresearch,butallwhoreceivemedicaltreatment.Ifgoodpeopledonothingthereisarealpossibilitythatanuninformedcitizenrywillextinguishthepreciousembersofmedicalprogress.18世紀(jì)政治家埃德蒙?柏克曾說過類似這樣的話，“被誤導(dǎo)的運(yùn)動(dòng)要想成功，所需的只是好人不作為?！爆F(xiàn)在，就有這樣一個(gè)運(yùn)動(dòng)正在尋求終止生物醫(yī)學(xué)的研究，因?yàn)橛羞@樣一種理論說，動(dòng)物享有權(quán)利禁止它們被用于實(shí)驗(yàn)?？茖W(xué)家應(yīng)該對(duì)動(dòng)物權(quán)利鼓吹者做出強(qiáng)有力的回應(yīng)，因?yàn)樗麄兊难哉摶煜斯姷囊暵牐瑥亩{到衛(wèi)生知識(shí)和衛(wèi)生服務(wù)的進(jìn)步。動(dòng)物權(quán)利運(yùn)動(dòng)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者將矛頭指向生物醫(yī)學(xué)研究，原因在于它依賴公共資金的資助，并且很少有人懂得醫(yī)學(xué)研究的過程。當(dāng)人們聽到醫(yī)學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)虐待動(dòng)物的指控時(shí)，許多人都不明白為什么有人會(huì)故意傷害動(dòng)物。例如，在最近一次街頭集市上，一位老奶奶站在動(dòng)物權(quán)利宣傳點(diǎn)前散發(fā)小冊(cè)子，規(guī)勸人們不要使用動(dòng)物制品和動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)制品——肉類，毛皮，藥物。當(dāng)被問到她是否反對(duì)免疫接種時(shí)，她問疫苗是否來自動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)。當(dāng)被告知的確如此，她回答道，“那么我不得不說，是的，我反對(duì)接種”。當(dāng)被問到瘟疫爆發(fā)怎么辦時(shí)，她說，“不用擔(dān)心，科學(xué)家會(huì)找到一種方法，用計(jì)算機(jī)來解決問題”。看，這樣好心的人們就是不明白?？茖W(xué)家必須把他們的意思傳達(dá)給公眾，并且要使用有同情心和通俗易懂的語言，一般人能夠明白的語言，而不要使用分子生物學(xué)的語言。我們需要說明動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)與祖母的髖骨更換、父親的心臟搭橋、嬰兒的免疫接種、甚至寵物的注射針劑都密切相關(guān)。許多人不明白獲得這些新的治療方法和疫苗都必須進(jìn)行動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)。對(duì)于他們來說，動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)說得好是浪費(fèi)，說得不好是殘忍。有很多事情可以做?？茖W(xué)家可以進(jìn)入中學(xué)課堂，展示他們的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果。他們應(yīng)該對(duì)報(bào)刊的讀者來信及時(shí)做出反應(yīng)，以防止動(dòng)物權(quán)利的誤導(dǎo)言論在毫無質(zhì)疑的情況下橫行，從而獲得一副真理的面容。科研機(jī)構(gòu)應(yīng)該對(duì)外開放，讓人參觀，向人們展示實(shí)驗(yàn)室里的動(dòng)物獲得了人道的對(duì)待。最后，因?yàn)樽罱K決定因素是病人，醫(yī)療研究機(jī)構(gòu)不僅應(yīng)該積極爭(zhēng)取斯蒂芬?庫(kù)柏這樣的名人的支持——他對(duì)動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)的價(jià)值勇敢地進(jìn)行了肯定——而且應(yīng)該爭(zhēng)取所有接受治療的病人的支持。如果好人無所作為，一群不明真相的公眾真的有可能撲滅醫(yī)學(xué)進(jìn)步的寶貴火種。(2)Science,inpractice,dependsfarlessontheexperimentsitpreparesthanonthepreparednessofthemindsofthemenwhowatchtheexperiments.SirIsaacNewtonsupposedlydiscoveredgravitythroughthefallofanapple.Appleshadbeenfallinginmanyplacesforcenturiesandthousandsofpeoplehadseenthemfall.ButNewtonforyearshadbeencuriousaboutthecauseoftheorbitalmotionofthemoonandplanets.Whatkepttheminplace?Whydidn'ttheyfalloutofthesky?Thefactthattheapplefelldowntowardtheearthandnotupintothetreeansweredthequestionhehadbeenaskinghimselfaboutthoselargerfruitsoftheheavens,themoonandtheplanets.Howmanymenwouldhaveconsideredthepossibilityofanapplefallingupintothetree?Newtondidbecausehewasnottryingtopredictanything.Hewasjustwondering.Hismindwasreadyfortheunpredictable.Unpredictabilityispartoftheessentialnatureofresearch.Ifyoudon'thaveunpredictablethings,youdon'thaveresearch.Scientiststendtoforgetthiswhenwritingtheircutanddriedreportsforthetechnicaljournals,buthistoryisfilledwithexamplesofit.Intalkingtosomescientists,particularlyyoungerones,youmightgathertheimpressionthattheyfindthe"scientificmethod"asubstituteforimaginativethought.I'veattendedresearchconferenceswhereascientisthasbeenaskedwhathethinksabouttheadvisabilityofcontinuingacertainexperiment.Thescientisthasfrowned,lookedatthegraphs,andsaid"thedataarestillinconclusive"Weknowthat,"themenfromthebudgetofficehavesaid,"butwhatdoyouthink?Isitworthwhilegoingon?Whatdoyouthinkwemightexpect?"Thescientisthasbeenshockedathavingevenbeenaskedtospeculate.Whatthisamountsto,ofcourse,isthatthescientisthasbecomethevictimofhisownwritings.Hehasputforwardunquestionedclaimssoconsistentlythathenotonlybelievesthemhimself,buthasconvincedindustrialandbusinessmanagementthattheyaretrue.Ifexperimentsareplannedandcarriedoutaccordingtoplanasfaithfullyasthereportsinthesciencejournalsindicate,thenitisperfectlylogicalformanagementtoexpectresearchtoproduceresultsmeasurableindollarsandcents.Itisentirelyreasonableforauditorstobelievethatscientistswhoknowexactlywheretheyaregoingandhowtheywillgetthereshouldnotbedistractedbythenecessityofkeepingoneeyeonthecashregisterwhiletheothereyeisonthemicroscope.Nor,ifregularityandconformitytoastandardpatternareasdesirabletothescientistasthewritingofhispaperswouldappeartoreflect,ismanagementtobeblamedfordiscriminatingagainstthe"oddballs"amongresearchersinfavorofmoreconventionaltinkerswho"workwellwiththeteam."在實(shí)踐中，科學(xué)的進(jìn)步依賴于做實(shí)驗(yàn)，但更依賴于實(shí)驗(yàn)的觀察者（即做實(shí)驗(yàn)的人）的心理是否有足夠的準(zhǔn)備。艾薩克?牛頓爵士通過蘋果落地發(fā)現(xiàn)了萬有引力。多少個(gè)世紀(jì)以來，蘋果一直在許多地方落到地面，也有成千上萬的人看到過蘋果落地。多年來牛頓一直對(duì)月球和行星繞軌道運(yùn)行的起因好奇不已。是什么使它們處于現(xiàn)在的位置呢？它們?yōu)槭裁床宦涞教炜罩饽?？蘋果向下落到地面不是向上飛到樹上,這一事實(shí)回答了他長(zhǎng)期以來一直對(duì)天空中更大果實(shí)一一月球和行星所存有的疑問。多少人會(huì)考慮過蘋果向上飛到樹上的可能性呢？牛頓考慮過，因?yàn)樗幌雽?duì)任何事情進(jìn)行預(yù)測(cè)。他只是懷有好奇心。他的思想在準(zhǔn)備思考不可預(yù)測(cè)的事。不可預(yù)測(cè)性是科學(xué)研究不可或缺的一個(gè)重要特征。如果沒有不可預(yù)測(cè)現(xiàn)象的產(chǎn)生就無所謂科學(xué)研究了。科學(xué)家們?cè)跒榭茖W(xué)雜志撰寫千篇一律的報(bào)告時(shí)常常忘記這一點(diǎn)，而歷史上這樣的例子卻比比皆是。在和一些科學(xué)家，特別是年輕科學(xué)家交談時(shí)，你可能會(huì)有這樣一種印象：他們認(rèn)為“科學(xué)方法”可以代替創(chuàng)造性思維。我出席過一些科研會(huì)議，會(huì)上有人問一位科學(xué)家繼續(xù)某項(xiàng)實(shí)驗(yàn)是否是明智之舉。那位科學(xué)家皺了皺眉，又看了看圖表，然后說：“數(shù)據(jù)還是不夠充分。”預(yù)算部門的人說：“這點(diǎn)我們知道，但你的意見如何？你覺得值得做下去嗎？你覺得我們可以期待什么呢？”這位科學(xué)家感到很震驚，他沒有料到人們會(huì)讓他做出臆測(cè)。當(dāng)然，這幾乎等于說：那位科學(xué)家成了他自己論文的受害者。他所提出的種種論斷是如此不容置疑、如此一致，以至于不僅他自己相信了，而且也說服了工商界的管理者相信其正確性。假如科學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)像科學(xué)雜志登載的科學(xué)報(bào)告顯示的那樣完全按事先的計(jì)劃去規(guī)劃和實(shí)施，那么，對(duì)管理層來說，期待研究能夠產(chǎn)生可以用金錢衡量的結(jié)果是完全合理的。審計(jì)人員也完全有理由相信，確切知道自己的目標(biāo)并知道如何實(shí)現(xiàn)這一目標(biāo)的科學(xué)家們根本沒必要用一只眼盯著現(xiàn)金計(jì)數(shù)器的同時(shí)，還要用另一只眼睛盯著顯微鏡。如果像他們的論文所反映的那樣，科學(xué)家也想看到規(guī)律性和與某種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)模式的一致性，那么如果管理人員歧視研究人員中的“標(biāo)新立異者”，而贊賞“善于合作”的具有傳統(tǒng)思維模式的人，那也是無可指摘的。（3）AreportconsistentlybroughtbackbyvisitorstotheUSishowfriendly,courteous,andhelpfulmostAmericansweretothem.Tobefair,thisobservationisalsofrequentlymadeofCanadaandCanadians,andshouldbestbeconsideredNorthAmerican.Thereareofcourse,exceptions.Smallmindedofficials,rudewaiters,andillmanneredtaxidriversarehardlyunknownintheUSYetitisanobservationmadesofrequentlythatitdeservescomment.Foralongperiodoftimeandinmanypartsofthecountry,atravelerwasawelcomebreakinanotherwisedullexistence.Dullnessandlonelinesswerecommonproblemsofthefamilieswhogenerallyliveddistantfromoneanother.Strangersandtravelerswerewelcomesourcesofdiversion,andbroughtnewsoftheoutsideworld.Theharshrealitiesofthefrontieralsoshapedthistraditionofhospitality.Someonetravelingalone,ifhungry,injured,orill,oftenhadnowheretoturnexcepttothenearestcabinorsettlement.Itwasnotamatterofchoiceforthetravelerormerelyacharitableimpulseonthepartofthesettlers.Itreflectedtheharshnessofdailylife:ifyoudidn'ttakeinthestrangerandtakecareofhim,therewasnooneelsewhowould.Andsomeday,remember,youmightbeinthesamesituation.Todaytherearemanycharitableorganizationswhichspecializeinhelpingthewearytraveler.Yet,theoldtraditionofhospitalitytostrangersisstillverystrongintheUS,especiallyinthesmallercitiesandtownsawayfromthebusytouristtrails.“Iwasjusttravelingthrough,gottalkingwiththisAmerican,andprettysoonheinvitedmehomefordinner一amazing.”SuchobservationsreportedbyvisitorstotheUSarenotuncommon,butarenotalwaysunderstoodproperly.ThecasualfriendlinessofmanyAmericansshouldbeinterpretedneitherassuperficialnorasartificial,butastheresultofahistoricallydevelopedculturaltradition.Asistrueofanydevelopedsociety,inAmericaacomplexsetofculturalsignals,assumptions,andconventionsunderliesallsocialinterrelationships.And,ofcourse,speakingalanguagedoesnotnecessarilymeantthatsomeoneunderstandssocialandculturalpatterns.Visitorswhofailto“translate”culturalmeaningsproperlyoftendrawwrongconclusions.Forexample,whenanAmericanusestheword“friend”，thecuIturalimplicationsofthewordmaybequitedifferentfromthoseithasinthevisitor'slanguageandculture.Ittakesmorethanabriefencounteronabustodistinguishbetweencourteousconventionandindividualinterest.Yet,beingfriendlyisavirtuethatmanyAmericanvaluehighlyandexpectfrombothneighborsandstrangers.去美國(guó)訪問的人經(jīng)常帶回報(bào)告說，大多數(shù)美國(guó)人對(duì)他們友善、好客、樂于助人。公正的說，人們對(duì)加拿大人也有這樣的評(píng)論，因而，應(yīng)當(dāng)認(rèn)為這是北美普遍的現(xiàn)象。當(dāng)然也有例外。在美國(guó)，心胸狹隘的官員，舉止粗魯?shù)恼写秃翢o禮貌的出租車司機(jī)也并非罕見。盡管有不如意的地方，但因?yàn)槿藗兂３５贸雒绹?guó)人好客的觀察意見，因而也就值得議論一番了。過去很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間，在美國(guó)很多地方，旅行者的到來因暫時(shí)打破原本的單調(diào)生活而受人歡迎。無聊、孤獨(dú)是居住相對(duì)遙遠(yuǎn)的家庭的普遍問題。陌生人和旅行者很受歡迎，他們帶來了娛樂消遣，還帶來了外面世界的消息。開拓者的嚴(yán)酷生活現(xiàn)實(shí)也促成了這一好客的傳統(tǒng)。單獨(dú)旅行時(shí)，如果挨餓、受傷或生病，通常只能向最近的小屋或村落求助。對(duì)旅行者來說，這不是一個(gè)選擇的問題；而對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)鼐用駚碚f，這也并非是行善的一時(shí)沖動(dòng)。它反映了日常生活的嚴(yán)酷：如果你不收留他，那他便無處求助了。請(qǐng)記住，有一天你也可能處于相同的境遇。如今，有了很多的慈善組織專門幫助疲憊的旅行者。不過，熱情接待陌生人的傳統(tǒng)在美國(guó)仍然很盛行，尤其是在遠(yuǎn)離旅游熱線的小城鎮(zhèn)?！拔抑皇锹愤^，和這個(gè)美國(guó)人聊了聊。很快，他就請(qǐng)我到他家吃飯一一這真令人驚奇?！眮砻绹?guó)的旅客談?wù)摯祟愂录芷毡椋⒎强偰艿玫秸_理解。很多美國(guó)人不經(jīng)意表現(xiàn)的友好不應(yīng)被看做是表面或虛假的應(yīng)酬，而應(yīng)該看成是文化傳統(tǒng)的歷史發(fā)展結(jié)果。同任何發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家一樣，一系列復(fù)雜的文化特征，信念和習(xí)俗構(gòu)成了美國(guó)所有社會(huì)交往的基礎(chǔ)。當(dāng)然，會(huì)講一種語言并不意味著就理解該語言的社會(huì)和文化模式。不能正確“詮釋”文化含義的旅行者往往得出錯(cuò)誤的結(jié)論。例如，美國(guó)人所說的“朋友”一詞，其文化含義可能與旅行者語言和文化中的“朋友”大相徑庭。要想正確區(qū)分禮貌是出于文化習(xí)俗還是個(gè)人興趣，單憑一次公共汽車上的偶遇是不夠的。不過，友好是很多美國(guó)人推崇的美德，同時(shí)希望鄰居和陌生人也能如此。(4)Thatexperiencesinfluencesubsequentbehaviourisevidenceofanobviousbutneverthelessremarkableactivitycalledremembering.Learningcouldnotoccurwithoutthefunctionpopularlynamedmemory.Constantpracticehassuchaseffectonmemoryastoleadtoskilfulperformanceonthepiano,torecitationofapoem,andeventoreadingandunderstandingthesewords.So-calledintelligentbehaviourdemandsmemory,rememberingbeingaprimaryrequirementforreasoning.Theabilitytosolveanyproblemoreventorecognizethataproblemexistsdependsonmemory.Typically,thedecisiontocrossastreetisbasedonrememberingmanyearlierexperiences.Practice(orreview)tendstobuildandmaintainmemoryforataskorforanylearnedmaterial.Overaperiodofnopracticewhathasbeenlearnedtendstobeforgotten;andtheadaptiveconsequencesmaynotseemobvious.Yet,dramaticinstancesofsuddenforgettingcanbeseentobeadaptive.Inthissense,theabilitytoforgetcanbeinterpretedtohavesurvivedthroughaprocessofnaturalselectioninanimals.Indeed,whenone'smemoryofanemotionallypainfulexperienceleadtoseriousanxiety,forgettingmayproducerelief.Nevertheless,anevolutionaryinterpretationmightmakeitdifficulttounderstandhowthecommonlygradualprocessofforgettingsurvivednaturalselection.Inthinkingabouttheevolutionofmemorytogetherwithallitspossibleaspects,itishelpfultoconsiderwhatwouldhappenifmemoriesfailedtofade.Forgettingclearlyaidsorientationintime,sinceoldmemoriesweakenandthenewtendtostandout,providingcluesforinferringduration.Withoutforgetting,adaptiveabilitywouldsuffer,forexample,learnedbehaviourthatmighthavebeencorrectadecadeagomaynolongerbe.Casesarerecordedofpeoplewho（byordinarystandards）forgotsolittlethattheireverydayactivitieswerefullofconfusion.Thisforgettingseemstoservethatsurvivaloftheindividualandthespecies.Anotherlineofthoughtassumesamemorystoragesystemoflimitedcapacitythatprovidesadaptiveflexibilityspecificallythroughforgetting.Inthisview,continualadjustmentsaremadebetweenlearningormemorystorage（input）andforgetting（output）.Indeed,thereisevidencethattherateatwhichindividualsforgetisdirectlyrelatedtohowmuchtheyhavelearned.Suchdataoffersgrosssupportofcontemporarymodelsofmemorythatassumeaninput-outputbalance.過去的經(jīng)歷會(huì)影響日后的行為，這就表明存在著一種明顯但卻非凡的腦力活動(dòng)一一記憶。如果沒有大家稱之為記憶的功能，學(xué)習(xí)便不能發(fā)生。反復(fù)練習(xí)對(duì)記憶有很大影響，可以使人們熟練地演奏鋼琴、背誦詩(shī)歌、乃至總結(jié)和理解這些詞句。用于解決問題或是辨別出有問題存在的所謂的智力行為需要記憶，記憶能力是推理的一個(gè)基本需求。解決任何問題，甚至是識(shí)別問題存在的能力都取決于記憶。最典型的是，決定過街也要憑借許多對(duì)以前經(jīng)歷的記憶。實(shí)踐（或稱復(fù)習(xí)）就是建立并保持對(duì)某一任務(wù)或所學(xué)材料的記憶。有一段時(shí)間不實(shí)踐，學(xué)到的東西往往就會(huì)忘記（漸進(jìn)性地遺忘）；其適應(yīng)性結(jié)果也就顯得不太明顯。然而戲劇性地突然遺忘的例子也可被看做具有適應(yīng)性。從這個(gè)意義上說，遺忘能力可解釋為動(dòng)物在自然選擇的過程中幸存下來的能力。的確，如果記住一段痛苦的情感經(jīng)歷會(huì)導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的焦慮，那么遺忘倒可以使人得到解脫。然而，進(jìn)化論的解釋可能會(huì)使人難以理解普遍的漸進(jìn)遺忘過程是如何在自然選擇中幸存下來的。在考慮記憶的進(jìn)化及其所有可能的方面時(shí)，思考一下如果記憶不會(huì)消失會(huì)產(chǎn)生什么結(jié)果是很有用處的。顯然，遺忘有助于時(shí)間的定位，因?yàn)榕f的記憶淡忘，新的記憶往往就突出，從而為推算持續(xù)的時(shí)間提供線索。沒有遺忘，適應(yīng)會(huì)受影響，例如，已學(xué)會(huì)的行為十年前可能是正確的，現(xiàn)在則不然了。有記錄表明，有些人（按一般標(biāo)準(zhǔn)）忘的太少，以致日常生活?；靵y不堪。因此遺忘似乎有助于個(gè)體及物種的存活。另一種思路則假定人的記憶存儲(chǔ)系統(tǒng)儲(chǔ)量有限，這個(gè)系統(tǒng)專門通過遺忘提供適應(yīng)的靈活性。根據(jù)這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)，在學(xué)習(xí)或記憶儲(chǔ)存（輸入）和遺忘（輸出）之間要不斷進(jìn)行調(diào)整。的確，表明個(gè)人的遺忘速度與學(xué)習(xí)東西的多少有直接的關(guān)系。這些數(shù)據(jù)為假定輸入一一輸出持衡的當(dāng)代記憶模式提供了明確的證據(jù)。(5)Discoveriesinscienceandtechnologyarethoughtby“untaughtminds”tocomeinblindingflashesorastheresultofdramaticaccidents.SirAlexanderFlemingdidnot,aslegendwouldhaveit,lookatthemoldonapieceofcheeseandgettheideaforpenicillinthereandthen.Heexperimentedwithantibacterialsubstancesfornineyearsbeforehemadehisdiscovery.Inventionsandinnovationsalmostalwayscomeoutoflaborioustrialanderror.Innovationislikesoccer;eventhebestplayersmissthegoalandhavetheirshotsblockedmuchmorefrequentlythantheyscore.Thepointisthattheplayerswhoscoremostaretheoneswhotakethemostshotsatthegoal—andsoitgoeswithinnovationinanyfieldofactivity.Theprimedifferencebetweeninnovatorsandothersisoneofapproach.Everybodygetsideas,butinnovatorsworkconsciouslyontheirs,andtheyfollowthemthroughuntilthe