語言學(xué)第6章習(xí)題

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SupplementaryExercises

I.

DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:

1.

Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudyhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication

2.

Pragmaticstreatsthemeaningoflanguageassomethingintrinsicandinherent.

3.

Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.

4.

Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.

5.

Themajordifferencebetweenasentenceandanutteranceisthatasentenceisnotutteredwhileanutteranceis.

6.

Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,butcontext-dependent.

7.

Themeaningofanutteranceisdecontexualized,thereforestable.

8.

Utterancesalwaystaketheformofcompletesentences

9.

SpeechacttheorywasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnSearle.

10.

Speechacttheorystartedinthelate50’softhe20thcentury.

11.

Austinmadethedistinctionbetweenaconstativeandaperformative.

12.

Perlocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.

II.

Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:

13.

P_________isthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

14.

Whatessentiallydistinguishess_______andpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.

15.

Thenotionofc_________isessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.

16.

Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanu___________.

17.

Themeaningofasentenceisa_______,anddecontexualized.

18.

C________werestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable.

19.

P________weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.

20.

Al_________actistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

21.

Ani__________actistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.

22.

Ac_________iscommitthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.

23.

Ane________istoexpressfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.

24.

Therearefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple:themaximofq_______,themaximofquality,themaximofrelationandthemaximofmanner.

III.

Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:

25._________doesnotstudymeaninginisolation,butincontext.

A.Pragmatics

B.Semantics

C.Senserelation

D.Concept

26.Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomething_______intraditionalsemantics.

A.contextual

B.behaviouristic

C.intrinsic

D.logical

27.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning_________

isconsidered.

A.reference

B.speechact

C.practicalusage

D.context

28.Asentenceisa_________concept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedinisolation.

A.pragmatic

B.grammatical

C.mental

D.conceptual

29.Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesa(n)_________.

A.constative

B.directive

C.utterance

D.expressive

30.

Whichofthefollowingistrue?

A.Utterancesusuallydonottaketheformofsentences.

B.Someutterancescannotberestoredtocompletesentences.

C.Noutterancescantaketheformofsentences.

D.Allutterancescanberestoredtocompletesentences.

31.Speechacttheorydidnotcomeintobeinguntil__________.

A.inthelate50’softhe20thecentury

B.intheearly1950’s

C.inthelate1960’s

D.intheearly21stcentury.

32.__________istheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

A.Alocutionaryact

B.Anillocutionaryact

C.Aperlocutionaryact

D.Aperformativeact

werenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.

43.locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

44.illocutionaryact:Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.

45.perlocutionaryact:Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.

46.CooperativePrinciple:ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeorthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:

47.

Howaresemanticsandpragmaticsdifferentfromeachother?

Traditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning,butthemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinanisolatedmanner,detachedfromthecontextinwhichtheywereused.Pragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotinisolation,butincontext.Theessentialdistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaning.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.

48.

Howdoesasentencedifferfromanutterance?

Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept.Itusuallyconsistsofasubjectandpredicate.Anutteranceistheunitofcommunication.Itisthesmallestlinguisticunitthathasacommunicativevalue.Ifweregardasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance.Whether“Maryisbeautiful.”isasentenceoranutterancedependsonhowwelookatit.Ifweregarditasagrammaticalunitoraself-containedunitinisolation,thenitisasentence.Ifwelookatitassomethingutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenitisanutterance.Mostutterancestaketheformofcompletesentences,butsomeutterancesarenot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.

49.

Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?

Asentencemeaningisoftenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoor”.Thespeakercouldutteritasamatter-of-factstatement,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Thereisadogatthedoor”dependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.

50.

Discussindetailthelocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.

Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.

Forexample:

Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.

Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords"you,'"have,""door,""left,""open,"etc.andexpressedwhatthewordliterallymean.

Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofaskingthehearertoclosethedoor.

Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearerunderstandsthatthespeakerintendshimtoclosethedoorandclosesthedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutioharyactissuccessfullyperformed.

51.Searleclassifiedillocutionaryactintofivecategories.Discusseachofthemindetailwithexamples.

1)

representatives:representativesareusedtostate,todescribe,toreport,etc..Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Forexample:

(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.

(Istate)theearthisaglobe.

2)

directives:Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.

Forexample:

Openthewindow!

3)commissives:Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Whenthespeakerisspeaking,heputshimselfunderobligation.Forexample:

Ipromisetocome.

Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.

4)

expressives:Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Forexample:

I'msorryforthemessIhavemade.

5)declarations:Declarationshavethecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofsuchanactbringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.Forexample:

Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.

52.

Whatarethefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple?

Themaximofquantity

1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).

2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Themaximofquality

1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Themaximofrelation

Berelevant.

Themaximofmanner

1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.

2.Avoidambiguity.

3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

4.Beorderly.

53.

Howdoesthefloutingofthemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?

A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Smithlives?

B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.

ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBdoesknowMr.Smith'saddress.ThusBdoesnotgiveenoughinformationthatisrequired,andhehasfloutedthemaximofquantity.Therefore,suchconversationalimplicatureas"Idonotwishtotel