跨文化非言語交際中的語用失誤分析

避免非言語語用失誤的對策。關(guān)鍵詞：跨文化；非言語交際；語用失誤本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第1頁1.IntroductionWiththedevelopmentofculturalexchanges,manypeopleacrosslanguageandculturalbarrierstocommunicationwehaveexperienced.Thecommunicationfailureislargelyduetothecommunicationpragmaticfailure.PragmaticFailurepragmaticsofahottopicrecentlyattractedwidespreadattentionathomeandabroadlinguistsandlanguageteachers.Incross-culturalcommunication,notonlytobeconcernedaboutthecorrectness,butalsotopayattentiontotheappropriatenessoftheuseoflanguage.Undertheinfluenceofpragmaticresearch,focusingonthetransformationoccurred.Infact,inrealcommunicationwithpeopleinothercountriesorregions,manyChinesepeoplefindthemselvesinanawkwardsituation.Althoughtheirlanguageskills,theycanspeakfluentEnglish,buttheyoftenstilllackinginitsabilitytousethelanguageofappropriatenesstouseandunderstand.Whichappearsmainlymisunderstandingorpragmaticfailurecommunicationsfailure,whichisunusualininterculturalverbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication.Incross-culturalcommunication,ifapersonwhocommitsthewronglanguage,shewillemergeanumberofrude,unfriendly,evenaggressiveriskbecauseitreflectshercapacityasaperson,becauseshecannotexpresswhatistheexpressionmeaning,andunderstandwhatiswhatismeanttobedelivered.Pragmaticfailuresconstituteaveryimportantsourceofinterculturalmiscommunication.Ithasbeenprovedthatlearners'pragmaticcompetencedoesnotpositivelycorrelatewiththeirlinguisticbackground.Inotherwords,pragmaticfailureswillnotvanishbythemselvesasthelearnersgetmorelinguisticknowledge.Orientedtopicstochoosethemostcompellingreasonis:First,asaseniorEnglishstudentslearningEnglishhasmorethan13years,theauthorsmakepragmaticfailureriskverbalandnonverbaltime;secondly,LanguageinInterculturalCommunicationbymistakes,especiallyhiddensettings,nonverbalpragmaticfailureisinevitableaccured,thenon-本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第2頁verbalbehavior,itreflectsthesignificanceofspontaneoussubconscioussignificance.Nonverbalbehaviorisusuallyculturalload,itiseasytoincurInterculturalCommunicationconflict.2.NonverbalCommunication2.1DefinitionofNonverbalCommunicationPeople'scommunicationactivitiesaredividedintoverbalcommunicationandnonverbalcommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationreferstoallactsofspeechactsotherthanintercourse.Itisanexchangeofinformationprocessthroughgestures,bodymovements,facialexpressions,etc.teapotthatcommunicationinthefaceof70%oftheinformationistransmittedbywayofnon-verbal,andonly30%oftheinformationisthroughlanguagedelivery(Samovar,2000).Mehrabianalsopointsoutthat"inthedialogue,93%oftheinformationistransmittedthroughnon-linguisticmeans,ofwhich38%isthroughsound,andthe55%isthroughfacialexpressions"(Mehrabian,1981).Visibleandnon-verbalcommunicationindailycommunicationrolecannotbeignored.PragmaticFailureconceptputforwardbytheBritishlinguistThomas1983,shedefinesitas"donotunderstandthemeaningoflanguage.."Thomaswasdividedintotwocategories:PragmaticFailureandpragmaticfailure.Thomaspragmaticfailuredefinitionsandclassifications,seemstoignoretheimportantaspectsofpragmaticfailure:non-verbalcommunicationPragmaticFailure.Infact,non-verbalcommunicationtherearealotofpragmaticfailurescanbecalledpragmaticfailure.本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第3頁2.2ClassificationofNonverbalCommunicationNonverbalcommunicationcanbeclassifiedintofouraspects:kinesics,paralanguage,objectlanguageandenvironmentlanguage.2.2.1KinesicsIt’sthestudyofbodylanguageswhichincludegestures,postures,oculesics(eyebehavior)andfacialexpressions(Dodd,1998:135-149).Itisoftencalledbodylanguagebasedonthefunctionofeachmovementinhumancommunication.2.2.2ParalanguageDeputylanguageisasoundaccompaniedbyspokenlanguagetoenhanceitsmeaning.Atthesametime,itisthesevoices,non-vocabularywords,additionalwords."Symbolicspeechcues,meaningnotonlythroughverbalandnonverbalcues,andthevoicequalitythroughavarietyoflanguagesystemsconferred"(Dodd,1991:220).2.2.3ObjectLanguageObjectlanguagecaneitherbeintentionalorunintentionaldisplayofmaterialthings.Generallyspeaking,objectlanguageincludesphysicalappearance,clothes,ornaments,smellandcolor.Theycanseverashighlysignificantmessagesthatweoffertoothers.2.2.4EnvironmentalLanguageEnvironmentallanguageincludingspatialinformation,timeinformation,etc.Thespatialinformationincludestheattitudeoftreatingthecrowded,thedomainidea,thebodydistance,thearrangementoftheseats,etc.Timeinformationisincludedinthecalculationoftimeandattitude.本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第4頁2.3FunctionofNonverbalCommunicationGenerallyspeaking,nonverbalcommunicationhasthreefunctions:Firstly,exchangingideas.Forinstance,peopleusuallyusebodylanguagesasnodded,waved,shookhisheadtosaytheirdisagreements.Also,intextdescriptioncanoftenseebowingandgesticulating,dancing,timid,enraptured,flirt,eyesandotherbodylanguageimagesdescription.Secondly,expressingemotion.Astearsmeangrief(sometimestheymeansjoy),laughsmeanjoy,gnashingtheteethinangermeanshate.Thirdly,expressingattitudeandrelationship.Etiquetteisarespectforpeople.Theattitudeandpositionshowtherelationshipbetweenthespeakers,suchashestandslikeasoldierwhenheistalking.3.TypesandManifestationsofPragmaticFailuresinNonverbalCommunicationNon-verbalcommunicationpragmaticfailuremainlyinthefollowingaspects:environmentallanguagepragmaticfailure,pragmaticfailureofbodylanguage,objectlanguagepragmaticfailureandpragmaticfailureofthelanguage.3.1KinesicsPragmaticFailureKinesicslanguageincludesallpartsofthebody,thebody'sbasicposture,andthecommunicationinformationprovidedbythebasicmanners.Intheprocessofcommunication,ifthebodyisnotappropriate,itwillhaveamisunderstanding,whichleadstothefailureofcommunication.SuchasinChineseculture,whentheaudienceortheaudienceapplause,theperformerorthespeakerhimselfwillapplaud,whichmeans"friendly"or"thankyou".InEnglishculture,thiskindofbehavioris"notmodest","pride"".TheBritishpeopleinthestreet,inordertobefriendly,andnoother本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第5頁reasoncansmileatstrangers,andtheChinesepeopleifnospecialreasonnottosmileatstrangers.Ifsomeoneinthestreethetrippedandfell,theBritishpeopleisnotlaughiflaughterwillbeconsideredimpolite,theChinesepeoplewillnotmaliciouslaughter.InChineseculture,ifyoustareatsomeone,youcansayitiscuriousorsurprised,butinEnglishculture,staringatsomeone,willbeconsideredrude,andmakepeopleveryembarrassed.Becauseofthedifferentculture,peoplehavedifferentunderstandingtomanybodylanguage,therefore,tounderstandthesedifferencesincross-culturalcommunication,avoidthepragmaticfailureofbodylanguage.Forexample:AChinesestudentAmeetsaBritishstudentPeterinthestreet,hesaid:A:HiPeter.(HepatsPeter'sshoulder.)Peter:Hi(Facewithoutexpression,asifthereisanawkward)Thisisakindofnon-verbalcommunication.BecausetheBritishbeautyhasnotliketotouchortakethehabitoftouching,iftrue,thensaid:"Sorry"andtheChinesepeopletoseeanacquaintance,takealookateachothersaid"longtimenosee","itiswarm".Adidnotnoticethis,andputhishabitsonPeter,whichledtothefailureofcommunicationinthecontext.3.2ParalanguagePragmaticFailuresThepragmaticfailureofthevicelanguageistheimproperuseofsomenon-semanticsounds,ortheerrorscausedbytheimpropergraspofthesilenceanddiscourseconversion.Nonsemanticsounds,suchasblowingawhistle,intheUnitedStates,theyoungpeopletothegirlisagoodimpression,praisethegirlbeautiful,hopingtoattracteachother'sattention.InChineseifyoungpeopleofgirlwhistlewillbeconsideredaroguebehavior,morefrivolous.Thereisabigdifferenceintheattitudeofsilenceandspeechconversion,theChineseandEnglishspeakingcountriesarealsoverydifferent.Chineseindealingwiththespeaker,silenceisnotconsent,whileBritishpeopleoftenendorsethesilence.InChineseandEnglish,theEnglishspeakingpeople本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第6頁don’tnotfeelaccustomedthatChinesepeopleoftentakethesilentattitude,suchastheclassofChinesestudentsarestilllistening,donotlovetoaskquestions,theChinesepeopleofteninsilencetorefusetoanswer,intheBritishandAmericancountries,thisisaninsulttothequestioner,isthelackoftrainingbehavior.InEnglishspeakingcountries,aslongasyouhearquestionsmustanswer,eventhanthestrongsilentbewideofthemark.AlthoughtheChinesepeoplebelievethatsilenceisgolden,butifusedincommunicationandtheBritishbeauty,veryeasytocausethefailureofcommunication,andevencauseagreatermisunderstanding.3.3ObjectLanguagePragmaticErrorTheobjectlanguageincludestheskinmodificationofthecommunicationinformation,thecoverofthebodyodor,theclothingandthemakeup,thepersonalarticles,thefurnitureandthevehicleetc.Inthecommunicationprocess,whentobehaveinappropriateorbecauseoftheculturaldifferencesexistcertaindifferenceleadstocommunicationmisunderstandingtheguestbodylanguage,objectlanguagepragmaticfailureappears.Takethedressasanexample,itcannotonlyshowtheperson'soccupation,status,temperament,butalsocanshowtheculture,loveandlifehabits,etc.Differentclothesoftenconveydifferentcommunicationinformation,soinacertainsituationifthedresscodeisinappropriate,itwillproducetheobjectlanguagepragmaticfailure,itisboundtoaffectthecommunicationeffect.Wearethemostcommonthiskindofpragmaticfailureissomeforeignteacherswearingrippedjeansorshorts,orbarefootandwearingsandalstostudentsinclass,devoidofaChineseteacherofimposingappearance,giveapersonthefeelingverycasual,donotattachimportancetotheteaching,evenoflecturesisnotrespected.Forexample,peopleinwesterncountrieslikesunbathing,peopleoftenliesonthebeachtoobtainthesun'sexposuretotanningoftheskinasasymbolofhealth,andtheChinesepeoplearenotunderstandingthishabit,inChina,whiteskinisabeautifulsymbol,Chineseladyafraidofsunexposure,alwaystryingtomaketheirownskin本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第7頁whiteandtender.3.4EnvironmentalPragmaticErrorEnvironmentallanguageincludestimeinformationandspatialinformation.Timeinformationistheattitudeofpeopletothetimeandthecalculationofthetime;thespaceinformationisthecommunicationbetweenthebodydistance,theterritoryoftheidea,thearrangementoftheseatsandtheattitudetowardscrowded.Thepragmaticfailureoftheenvironmentreferstotheimproperhandlingofthetimeinformationorspatialinformation,becauseoftheculturaldifferences,theuseofdifferenttimeorspacemode,intheinteractionofpragmaticfailure,resultinginahugeculturalconflict.Becauseofculturaldifferences,peopleindifferentcountriesornationalitieshavedifferentbasicideas,suchashowtobepunctual,howtobepunctual,fastandslow,andtoobservethedifferentattitudesoftime,andthedifferentunderstandingoftime.Chinesepeopleaccepttheinvitationtovisit,inordertoshowpoliteness,oftenwillarriveinadvance,ifinvitedtothehomewillalsohelptheownertopreparemeals.AndAmericanstendtobelateforawhile,inordertogivetheownerabettertimetoprepare.Peopleindifferentspatialinformationinthecommunication,theytendtobelievethatisthewaytheydealwithspaceand,therefore,duetothedifferentculturesandmisunderstandingorconflict.Everyonehasacertainamountofspace,personalspacepeoplehavedifferentunderstandingandhabits.TheBritishrespectpersonalareasoffamilymembers,includingchildrenhavepersonalspace;incontrast,theChinesepeopleathomewithoutsuchastrongpersonalsenseofthedomain,parentsoftenwithoutpermissiontofreelyenterchildrenroom,flippingthroughthechilditems,evenreadchildren'sdiary;Chinesecultureattachesgreatimportancetocooperation,morelikegroup,therefore,insomepublicplaces,thecrowdismorecrowded,peopleareaccustomedto,andpeopleinwesterncountriesgenerallydifficulttotolerate.Peopleinthecommunicationprocess,accordingtothe本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第8頁degreeofclosenessbetweenpeopletodistinguishseveraldifferentdistance,respectivelyfromtheindividualandpublicdistance,closedistanceandsocialdistance.Inthecrowdedbus,thepeopleofEnglishspeakingcountriesfeelisnotused,tryingtoavoidcollisionwithpeople,theChinesepeoplecanbehappyandpleasedwithoneself.PeopleintheEnglishspeakingcountriesofthecrowdedphenomenonisalsoverynotaccustomedtotheChinesepeopleinthequeuewhentheystandclosetoeachother,theyareinlinewiththebodybeforeandafterthebodytomaintainacertaindistance,donotwanttocontact,forfearthatotherswilltouchtheirown.4.StrategiestoAvoidNonverbalPragmaticFailure4.1CultivatingCulturalEmpathyAsisknowntoall,languageandcultureareinseparable.Toachievesuccessfulcross-culturalcommunication,languagelearnersinadditiontolearningawealthoflanguageknowledge,butalsothroughvariouschannels,consciouslylearningthetargetlanguageculturebackgroundknowledge,forexample,toseeauthenticforeignclassicsorfilmandtelevisionworks,readingforeignnewspapersandmagazines,etc.Onlyinthisway,languagelearnerscanbemorekeenlyawareoftheworldofpluralism,andin-depthunderstandingofthenationalcharacteristicsoflanguageandculture,foundthedifferenceofthecultureofthetargetlanguageandnonverbalcommunicationbehaviorcharacteristics,sothat"knowthyself".Intheconditionofhavingarichknowledgeoflanguageandculture,imagineyourselfinthetargetlanguageculturebackground,reproducethemselves,andrealizethetransference.Wearetryingtodevelopculturalempathyinordertobesuccessfulasinterculturalcommunicators,andwealsoseethattheapplicationofempathyininterculturalcommunicationmightservetocreateamoresensitive,respectful,harmoniousandpeacefulclimateforcommunicatorsininterculturalcommunicativecontext.SunYaandDaiLingthinksthatsuccessfulandharmoniousintercultural本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第9頁communicationwillfallbackoncommunicators'culturalempathy.Throughstudyingculturalempathy,weatleastcanbeconsciousofhowotherswouldliketobetreatedfromtheirownperspectives.Wemaynotwantorbeabletoprovidethattreatment,butthevaryactofacknowledgingculturaldifferencesandattemptingculturalempathyisprofoundlyrespectfulandaffirmingofpeoplefromotherculturalbackgrounds.4.2UnderstandingtheCharacteristicsofNonLinguisticBehaviorCulturaltolerance,accordingtoProf.QianGuanlian(1997:223),isakindofculturalattitudewhichoneholds.Vogt(2000:3)seesitas“intentionalself-restraintinthefaceofsomethingonedislikes,objectsto,findsthreatening,orotherwisehasanegativeattitudetoward-usuallyinordertomaintainasocialorpoliticalgrouportopromoteharmonyinagroup”.Thethesisholdsthattheoptimalandidealgoalforcommunicatorsininterculturalcommunicationtoseekforistheharmoniousrelationshipand“culturaltacit”(encyclopedicunsaid)(YangMin,1998),whicharemainlycharacterizedbyculturaltolerance.Ofcourse,theharmonysoughtcanbeshort-termorlong-term.Themoderneducationisdiverse,sotoleranceshouldbebasedondifferenceanddiversity.Therefore,weattachgreatimportancetodevelopingtolerance,especially,developingstudents'culturaltolerancewhencommunicatingwithpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.Communicativecompetenceindevelopingculturaltoleranceisalsoimportant.Communicativecompetencewillundoubtedlymeanlanguageskills,butitsmainfocusisonsocialandculturalsignificanceoftherules,anydiscourseintuitivegroups.Communicativecompetenceincludesknowledgethespeaker-hearerhasofwhatconstitutesappropriateaswellascorrectlanguagebehaviorandalsoofwhatconstituteseffectivelanguagebehaviorinrelationtoparticularcommunicativegoals(Ellis,2000:13).Fromanotherperspective,communicativecompetenceincludingtheabilitytonon-verbal,nonverbalallthedifferentsemanticknowledgetwocultures,an本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第10頁abilitytobothsendandreceivenon-verbalsignals.Therefore,weneedtodevelopourcommunicativecompetenceindifferentcountriesverbalandnonverbalculture.Inordertodevelopculturaltoleranceandinterculturalcommunicativecompetence,weneedrecognizetheimportanceoflearningtorecognizeourowncommunicationstyle-themannerinwhichwepresentourselvestoothers.Samovar,PorterandStefaniarguethat“bycommunicationstyleismeantthetopicspeopleprefertodiscuss,Theirfavoriteformofinteractiveceremony,parameters,self-disclosureanddepthofmutualparticipation,theirmutualneeds.Itincludeswhatextent,transmissionofinformationmaterial,andtheextenttoadjusttothesamelevelofsignificancecommunicatorrelyonthesamechannel,sound,verbal,thatis,thefactsortheemotionalcontentofthemessage.”Thatis,allofushaveuniquewaysofinteractingandcommunicatingwhenweencounteranotherpartyininterculturalcommunication.4.3ImprovingLanguageSkillsInterculturalcommunicationscholarsplacemoreemphasisoncontextualfactorsinadditiontoviewingcommunicativecompetenceaseffectiveandappropriateinteraction.Theyconceiveofcommunicativecompetencenotonlyaseffectiveandappropriateinteractionbetweenpeople,butequallyeffectiveandappropriateinteractionofpeoplebelongingtoaparticularenvironment.Thispositioningissimilartocommunicationscholarsemphasizecontext-specificdisability.Thus,intheaboveexplanation,wetrytodefine"interculturalcommunicativecompetence"asfollows:inaparticularenvironment,effectivecommunicationandbehaviorappropriatelyperformed,causingtheexpectedresponse.Thedefinitionshowsthatcompetentpersonsneednotonlyknowhowtofulfilltheircommunicativegoalsusingthisability,butalsothefinalgoalofforeignlanguageeducationistotrainanddevelopcommunicators'interculturalcommunicativecompetence.本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第11頁Communicativecompetenceiscomposedoftwolinguisticcompetenceandpragmaticcompetence.Languageandcontextreferstotheabilitytohelptheproductionandtheabilitytoinferknowledgeofthelanguagewiththehelpofawordorsentencemeaning,capacitygrammaticallycorrectsentence.Pragmaticcompetenceisthecleveruseoflanguageabilitytocommunicate,includingtheabilitytoappropriatelyproduceandinterpretutterances(HeZiran,2001:201).Thesetwokindsofcompetenceinfluencetheeffectivenessofcommunicationindifferentaspects.Pragmaticcompetenceismoreimportantsoastocommunicateeffectively.HeZiranpointsoutthattolearnalanguageistodevelopthepragmaticcompetence,thatis,tousealanguageincommunication.Intraditionalforeignlanguageteaching,onlyemphasizelanguageskillscanbedone,whileignoringthepragmaticcompetence.Studentsareonlytoldtomasterandusecorrectpronunciation,grammar,wordsandidioms,asaresult,theycanproducegrammaticallycorrectutterancesbutdonotknowtowhom,inwhatmanner,andinwhatcircumstance,theycanusethem,i.e.theycannotusetheutterancesappropriatelyinthecontext.Asmentionedbefore,pragmaticfailuresaretheresultofinappropriateproductionandinterpretationofutterances.Pragmaticfailuresalsoincludespragmabehaviorfailures,whichisanotherhiddensourceofcommunicationbreakdowns.So,inthefosteringofinterculturalcommunicativecompetence,notonlytheappropriateuseofutterancebutalsotheappropriateuseofnonverbalbehaviorshouldbepaidattentionto.Thepurposeoflearningalanguageistogaintheabilitytoproperlyusethislanguagetocommunicate;Similarly,thepurposeoflanguageteachingistohelpstudentsdevelopthisability.Thus,studentsofpragmaticcompetenceisnecessary,whetheritisverbal,nonverbal.CultivationofPragmaticCompetenceandInterculturalCommunicationunderstandingotherculturesareverydifferent.本科畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）第12頁5.ConclusionCrossculturalcommunication