英語文檔：法學英語

LegalEnglish

法學英語

課程教案

ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchDepartment

HeilongjiangUniversity

ChapterI.Jurisprudence

I.Objectives

Afterlearningthischapter,studentsshallbeableto:

1.getacquaintedwiththebasicwordsandphrasesofjurisprudence;

2.understandthefundamentalissuesofjurisprudence,suchaswhatjurisprudenceis,whatlawis,

howtoclassifylaw,andwhatthebasicbranchesoflaware;

3.comprehendtheissuesoflegalculture,legalprofession,legaleducation,andsomebasicsof

socialistlawtheory.

ILSummary

Asthefoundationoflaw,thischapterfirstintroduceswhatjurisprudenceisanditsrelevant

matters,suchasscopeofjurisprudence.Second,itprovidessomeconceptsoflawandclassifies

lawintwoways.Third,itcomestothecomparisonoflegalculturesbetweenChinaandAmerica.

Four,itfocusesonthelegalprofession.Five,itsummarizesthelegaleducationsinCivilLaw

countriesandChina.Finally,itoutlinessocialisttheoryoflaw.

III.Text

BriefContents

1.IntroductiontoJurisprudence......................................................................................2

2.TheOntologyofLaw...................................................................................................7

3.LegalCulture.................................................................................................................13

4.LegalProfession...........................................................................................................24

5.LegalEducation............................................................................................................32

6.SocialistTheoryofLaw..............................................................................................35

1.IntroductiontoJurisprudence

1.1WhatistheScienceofLaw?法學

Thescienceoflawreferstothescientificactivitiesanditsfruitbasedonthe

studyoflegalorquasi-legalphenomena.Thesystemofscienceoflawmaybe

dividedasfollowingaccordingtodifferentscholarsofdifferentnations:

>UK:D.M.Walker,TheOxfordCompaniontoLaw

Theoreticalscienceoflaw:legaltheoriesandphilosophy,legalhistoryandother

historyoflegalsystems,andresearchoncomparativelaw.

Practicalscienceoflaw:internationallaw,transnationallaw,domesticlaw,and

othersubsidiarydisciplines,suchasforensicmedicine.

>Japan:

Publiclaw:constitution,administrativelaw,andinternationallaw.

Privatelaw:civillaw,businesslaw,civilprocedurelaw,laborlaw,andprivate

internationallaw.

Criminallaw:criminallaw,criminalprocedurelaw,andcriminalpolicy.

Basicscienceoflaw:legalphilosophy,legalsociology,legalhistory,and

comparativelaw.

>China

Basedonbranchesoflaw:jurisprudence,legalhistory,constitution,

administrativelaw,civillaw,criminallaw,procedurelaw,internationallaw,andthe

like.

Basedonepistemology:theoreticallawandpracticallaw,theformerfocuseson

theresearchonfundamentalconcepts,principles,andregularpattern.Thelatter

structureandcontentoflaw,andits'making,interpretation,andapplication.

1.2RelationBetweenJurisprudenceandtheScienceofLaw法理學

Jurisprudenceconstitutesthefoundationofthescienceoflaw,bywhichthe

generalcharacteristicsandregularpatternsofdifferentdivisionsoflaware

examinedandimportantlytheuniversalprinciplesareoutlined.Meanwhile,

jurisprudenceshouldcontainthemethodologyofthescienceoflaw.Therefore,

thoughjurisprudencedealswithavarietyofissues,theunifyingelementinallthese

aspectsofthestudyisthatineverycasethemainquestionthatisbeinginvestigated

andtowhichananswerisbeingsoughtis,briefly,whatislaw?Essentially,

jurisprudencedealswiththequestionsliketheincidence,development,and

consequenceoflaw.So,generalquestionstobeansweredhavetodowithsuch

mattersasfollowing:

1)Theorigin,sourcesanddevelopmentoflawgenerallyand/orinspecific

societies;

2)Themeaningofspecificlegalconceptsandtheconstructionofvariouslegal

structuresandprocesses;

3)Thefunctionsandvaluesoflaw;and

4)Theoperationofthelawandthelinkbetweenlawandothersocialphenomena

suchaspolitics,economics,cultureandmorality.

1.3TheNatureofJurisprudence:Whatquestionsdoesjurisprudenceanswer?

Jurisprudence

一PhilosophyofLaw

WhatisLaw?

\

/\

AnalyticalNormative分析式;規(guī)范

—Whatthelawis—Whatthelawshouldbe式

Theword'jurisprudence'isderivedfromtwoLatinwords,juris-meaning'of

law'andprudens-meaning'skilled'.Thetermhasbeenusedvariouslyatdifferent

times,rangingfromitsusetodescribemereknowledgeofthelaw,toitsmore

specificdefinitionasadescriptionofthescientificinvestigationoffundamental

legalphenomena.

Astrictdefinitionofjurisprudenceisdifficulttoarticulate.Themainproblem

withjurisprudenceisthatitsscopeofinquiryrangesovermanydifferentsubjects

andtouchesonmanyotherdisciplines,suchaseconomics,politics,sociologyand

psychology.

Asasubject,jurisprudencemaybesaidtoinvolvethestudyofawiderangeof

socialphenomena,withthespecificaimofunderstandingthenature,placeandrole

oflawwithinsociety.Themainquestionwhichjurisprudenceseekstoanswerisof

ageneralnatureandmaybephrasedsimplyas:Whatisthenatureoflaw?This法的本質(zhì)

questioncanbeseenasbeingactuallytwoquestionsinone,thatis:Whatisthe

law?Andwhatconstitutesgoodlaw?

Answerstothesetwoquestionsconstitutetwomajordivisionsinjurisprudential

inquiry.Theseareanalyticaljurisprudenceandnormativejurisprudence.

ThesetwodivisionswerefirstclearlyspecifiedbyJohnAustininhistextThe法理學范疇

ProvinceofJurisprudenceDetermined(1832).Otherdivisionsandsubdivisions

havebeenidentifiedandarguedforasthefieldofjurisprudenceorlegalphilosophy

hasexpanded.

InthecivillawtraditionofEuropeitmeansthecollectivityofdecisionsa

particularcourt.Inthecommonlawtraditionitmeanslegalphilosophyaboutwhich

weaskwhatislaw,howlawistobedefined,whatareitsessentialaspects,andthe

like.

1.4SomeDistinctionsinJurisprudence

Theworkofjuristscanbedividedintovariousdistinctiveareas,depending

mainlyonthespecificsubjectmatterwithwhichthestudydeals.Whatfollowsare

someofthemoreimportantdivisionsandsubdivisions,althoughitisimportantto

rememberthatthereareothers.

1)BasicDivisions

Analyticaljurisprudence

Involvesthescientificanalysisoflegalstructuresandconceptsandthe

empiricalexerciseinvolvedindiscoveringandelucidatingthebasicelements經(jīng)驗主義的

constitutinglawinspecificlegalsystems.Thequestiontobeansweredis:whatis

thelaw?

Normativejurisprudence

Referstotheevaluationoflegalrulesandlegalstructuresonthebasisofsome

standardofperfectionandthespecificationofcriteriaforwhatconstitutes'good'

law.Thisinvolvesquestionsofwhatthelawoughttobe.

2)Subdivisions一般法理學

Generaljurisprudence

Referstoanabstractedstudyofthelegalrulestobefoundgenerallyinthemore

developedlegalsystems.專門法理學

Particularjurisprudence

Thespecificanalysisofthestructuresandotherelementsofasinglelegal

system.歷史法理學

Historicaljurisprudence

Astudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentandgrowthoflegalsystemsandthe

changesinvolvedinthegrowth.批判法理學

Criticaljurisprudence

Studiesintendedtoprovideanestimationoftherealvalueofexistinglegal

systemswithaviewtoprovidingproposalsfornecessarychangestosuchsystems.社會法學

Sociologicaljurisprudence

Seekstoclarifythelinkbetweenlawandothersocialphenomenaandto

determinetheextenttowhichitscreationandoperationareinfluencedandaffected

bysocialinterests.經(jīng)濟法學

Economicjurisprudence

Investigatestheeffectsonthecreationandapplicationofthelawofvarious

economicphenomena.

1.5SomeImportantSchoolsofJurisprudence

Apartfromdifferenttypesofjurisprudence,differentschoolsofjurisprudence

exist.

Thereistheclassicdebateovertheappropriatesourcesoflawbetween實證主義者

positivistandnaturallawschoolsofthought.Generally,Positivistsarguethatthere

isnoconnectionbetweenlawandmoralityandtheonlysourcesoflawarerules實體

thathavebeenexpresslyenactedbyagovernmentalentityorcourtof自然主義者

law.Naturalists,orproponentsofnaturallaw,insistthattherulesenactedby

governmentarenottheonlysourcesoflaw.Theyarguethatmoralphilosophy,

religion,humanreasonandindividualconsciencearealsointegratingpartsofthe

law.自然法

ANaturallaw

Theoldestandoneofthemostsignificantschoolsofjurisprudenceisthenatural

lawschool,whichholdsthatgovernmentandthelegalsystemshouldreflect

universalmoralandethicalprinciplesthatareinherentinhumannature.

TheconceptofnaturallawtracesitsancientGreece.TheGreekphilosopher

Aristotle(384-322BC)madethedistinctionbetweennaturallawandcommonlaw普通法

(orcalledpositivelaw,writtenlaw).Accordingtohim,naturallaw^everywherehas實在法，成文

thesameforceanddoesnotexistbypeople'sthinkingorthat."Therefore,natural法

lawismoralprinciplesthatareuniversalinhumansocieties.Conventionallaws,on

theotherhand,reflectthevaluesandmoralsthatareacceptedbyaparticular

societyataparticulartime.

St.ThomasAquinas(AD1225-1274),amedievaltheologian,triedtoreconcile

Aristotle'sphilosophyofnaturallawwithChristianity.Accordingtohim,thereare

fourtypesoflaw.(1)EternallawisGod'splanfortheuniverse.(2)Naturallawis

madeupofthoseaspectsofeternallawthatareaccessibletohumansthrough

reason.(3)DivinelawisGod'sdirectrevelationtohumankindthroughthe

Scriptures.(4)Humanlawsarespecificrulescreatedbymenandwomenaddress

particularproblemsorcircumstances.

Atthebasisofnaturallawistheconceptthatallpersonshavenaturalrights.

JohnLocke,animportantEnglishpoliticalphilosopher,arguedin1689thatnoone

wasbomwithanobligationtoobeyrulers.Heclaimedthatallindividualswere

bornfree,equal,andindependent,andthattheyhadanaturalrighttolife,liberty,

andproperty.Thepurposeofgovernmentwastosecurethoserights.

InourowntimeLonFullerhasattemptedtoapplynatural-lawprinciplestoan

analysisofthelegalsystem.InTheMoralityofLaw(1964),Fullerexaminedour

legalsystemtounderstandits"internalmorality：'Insodoing,helaidoutcertain內(nèi)在的道德

requirementsoraninternallymorallegalsystem:(1)Thelegalsystemshould

comprisereasonablycleargeneralrulesthatareknowntoallcitizensinadvance.

(2)Theserulesshouldnotberetroactive-thatis,theyshouldnotbeappliedto

situationsthatoccurredbeforethoseruleswereestablished.(3)Lawsshouldnotbe

contradictoryorrequiretheimpossible.(4)Lawsshouldremainovertimeand

shouldbeadministeredinaconsistentmanner.Apartthedifferencebetween

Fuller'sformulationofnaturallawandthatofAristotle,heattemptstoidentify

certainunchangedablemoralprinciplesthatshouldformthefoundationofevery

legalsystem.

Inessence,thenaturallawtraditionpresupposesthatthelegitimacyof合法性

conventionalorpositivelawderivesfromnaturallaw.Wheneveritconflictswith

naturallaw,conventionallawloseslegitimacyandthenshouldbechanged.

LaoZi(b.604B.C.)maintainsthatthesystemoflawmostconduciveto

welfareisonethatgivesafullplaytotheinarticulatedictatesofnature.Itiswithin

theboundsofnaturaljusticethattherulermustenforcehislaws.Justiceandreason

aretheonlylegitimatejudgesandexecutioners.Whentherulerreplacesjusticeand

reasonbyhiscaprice,heusurpsthefunctionofthelawofnature.Thereby,he

condemnshimself.

Confucius(551B.C.-478B.C.)holdsthatifarulerdirectspeopletothepractice

ofvirtueandregulatesthemtothatpracticethroughthemediumofmoral

discipline,theywillnaturallyhaveastrongsenseofpersonalhonorandwillbe

orderlyintheirconduct.However,iftheruleremphasizeslawsandresortsto

punishmentfortheirviolation,thepeoplewilltryonlytolivetotheminimum

requirementoflawandwillbedestituteofasenseofpersonalhonor.Therefore,the

mostimportantfunctionofa“judge“istoseethatunderhisjurisdictionthereareno

occasionsforgoingtolaw.Inordertoqualifyforapublicoffice,amanshould

knowhowtoavoidthefourvicesoftyranny,violence,oppression,andmechanical

administrationoflaw.

>PositiveLaw實證法

Incontrasttonaturallawschool,thepositivistschoolmaintainsthatthereareno

“natural“rights;rightscomeintoexistenceonlywhenthereisasovereignpower

(government)toconferandenforcethoserights.

Attheotherendofthespectrumisthepositivistschoolorpositivism

(formalisticoranalyticaljurisprudence).Thosewhoadheretothisschoolbelieve

thattherecanbenohigherlawthananation'spositivelaw-lawcreatedbya

particularsocietyataparticularpointintime.

TheEnglishphilosopherThomasHobbes(1588-1679)isviewedbymanyas

thefounderofthepositivistapproachtolaw.Hobbesbelievedthatintheoriginal

stateofnature,humanswerenobetterthanmonkeyskillingeachothertogetatthe

fewbananasonthebananatree,andheconcludedthatsovereignpowerwas

necessaryforstabilityandpeace-----infact,forsurvival.Individualsdonothave

any“natural“rights;rather,theypossessonlythoserightsacquiredasaresultof

enforceablelaw.Whetheraparticularlawcanbediscussed,andlawscanbe

changedinanorderlymannerthroughlegitimatelawmakingprocess.Butaslongas

alawexists,itmustbeobeyed.

JohnAustin(1790-1859),oneofthemostimportantthinkersinthetraditionof

legalpositivism,didagreethatmoralityshouldplaysomeroleinshapingthelaw.

ButAustin,likeotherpositivists,believedthatmoraltheoryhasnoroleindefining

whatlawactuallyis,Abadlawisasmuchalawasagoodone:^^Theexistenceof

lawisonething,“hewrote,44itsmeritordemeritisanother7*

ToAustin,thedifferencebetweenalawandanopinionliesinthefactthatalaw

mustbeobeyedonpainofpunishment:Alawisthusa“command”issuedbya

“sovereign."Acommand,accordingtoAustin,hastwocomponents.Thefirstisthe

expressionofadesirethatsomepeopledoornotdosomething;theotherisathreat

orimpliedthreatagainstanyonewhodoesnotcomplywiththatdesire.

ShangYang(?-338B.C.),HanFeizi(280B.C.-223B.C.)

TheChinesepoliticsofthefourthandthirdcenturiesB.C.weremarkedbythe

tendencyforconsolidationofpowerthroughabsorptionofsmallstatesbylarger

ones,eliminationoftheauthorityofthenoblesovertheirpeasants,administration

ofjusticedirectlybytheofficialsofthecentralgovernment,andcentralizedtax

collection.Legalismgrewformsuchpoliticalethos.

ThecontentionbetweentheConfucianismandtheLegalismfocusedonthescopeof

officialjudgmentasagainstfixedandimpersonallaws.TheConfucianscontended

thatlawsmustbeenforcedbymen.Iftherulerandhisofficialswereupright,a

permanentbodyoflawswouldbeunnecessary.Thelegalistscontendedthata

uniformsetofstandardsoughttoapplytotheentirepopulation.Lawoughtnotto

besubjecttothediscretionofmagistrates.Furthermore,theyconceivedoflawas

self-operativeinthesensethattherulerpublisheshisdecreesandafixedpenaltyis

imposedforeachoffense,withoutanyexceptionsforrankorextenuating

circumstances.

Shanglangspeaksofthesupremacyoflawandmaintainsthatacountryis

governedthrough_threeinstrumentalities,namely,(a)laws,(b)thecertaintythatthe

lawswillbeenforced,and(c)thepowertocarrythelawsineffect.

HanFeiZiregardshumannatureasfundamentallyevil.Butunlikehisteacher,

XunZi,hedoesnotbelievethateducationandculturearecapableofredeemingof

it.HedisputestheConfucianargumentthatgovernmentministersshouldbe

selectedonthebasisoftheiruprightcharacter.Hebelievesthatallofficialsare

potentiallydishonestsothateachshouldbemadetoactasacheckupontheothers.

Themassesareignorantandincapableofseeingbeyondtheirownimmediate

interests.Thegovernmentshoulddirectitselftothem.Therefore,heconcludes,a

strictsetoflawsandpenalties,impartiallyenforced,isindispensabletopublic

order.Helikensthesovereigntothehelmsmanofaship.Anintelligentruler

governswiththeIwohandlesofrewardandpunishment.Oncelawshavebeen

established,everyoneshouldobeythem.Inthestateoftheintelligentruler,onlythe

lawsserveasteachings.Therearenootherbooksandrecordsfitforsuchteachings.

This,incidentally,ledthefirstemperoroftheQinEnpiretoburnthebooks,

especiallytheConfucianisttexts.

>SociologicalJurisprudence

Legaltheorysuggestingthatthelawanditsjudicialinterpretationsshould

considerthefindingsofsociology.Sociologicaljurisprudencesuggeststhatboththe

lawandjudicialinterpretationsofitshouldtakeintoaccountthefindingsof

sociology.

>LegalRealism法現(xiàn)實主義

Aschooloflegalthoughtofthe1920sand1930sthatchallengedmanyexisting

jurisprudentialassumptions,particularlytheassumptionthatsubjectiveelements

playednopartinjudicialreasoning.

Thelegalrealistsgenerallyadvocatedalessabstractandmorerealisticapproach

tothelaw,anapproachthatwouldtakeintoaccountcustomarypracticesandthe

circumstancesinwhichconductstakeplace.Thatistosay,eachcaseisattendedby

auniquesetofcircumstances.

Summary

連續(xù)體

Therearenobrightlinesbetweendifferentschoolsofjurisprudence.Thelegal

philosophyofaparticularlegalscholarmayconsistofacombinationofstrains

frommanyschoolsoflegalthought.Somescholarsthinkthatitismoreappropriate

tothinkaboutjurisprudenceasacontinuum.Theabovementionedschoolsoflegal

法的本體

thoughtsareonlypartofadiversejurisprudentialpicture.Otherprominentschools

oflegalthoughtexist.

法的定義

2.TheOntologyofLaw-DefinitionandClassificationofLaw

2.1DefinitionofLaw

本體

>Plato(B.C427—B.C.347Greece):Lawisaformofsocialcontrol,(functional

perspective—lawissocialcontrol)

>Aristotle(B.C384—B.C.332Greece):Seeinglawasaruleofconduct.

(noumenonperspective—lawisrule)

>MarcusTulliusCicero(B.C.106一B.C.43AncientRome):Lawisthe

agreementofreasonandnature,thedistinctionbetweenthejustandtheunjust,

(originperspective—lawisreason)

>SirWilliamBlackstone(1723—1780TheBritishJurist):Describinglawas“a

ruleofcivilconductprescribedbythesupremepowerinastate,commanding

whatisright,andprohibitingwhatiswrong.”(noumenonperspective—lawis

command)

>OliverWendellHolmes(1841—1935AmericanJurist):Contendingthatlaw

isasetofrulesthatallowedonetopredicthowcourtwillresolveaparticular判決

dispute:"Thepropheciesofwhatthecourtswilldoinfact,andnothingmore

pretentious,arewhatImeanbylaw.”(noumenonperspective—lawis

judgement)

ARoscoePound(1870—1964AmericanJurist):44SometwentyyearsagoI

pointedtwoideasrunningthroughdefinitionsoflaw:oneanimperativeidea,

anideaofarulelaiddownbythelawmakingorganofapoliticallyorganized

society,derivingitsforceformtheauthorityofthesovereign;andtheothera

rationalorethicalidea,anideaofaruleofrightandjusticederivingits

authorityformitsintrinsicreasonablenessorconformitytoidealsofrightand

merelyrecognized,notmade,bythesovereign.^^(functionalperspective-law

issocialcontrol)

>RichardPosner:"Itwillhelptodistinguishthreesensesoftheword'law.'

Thefirstislawasadistinctivesocialinstitution;thatisthesenseinvoked

whenweaskedwhetherprimitiveisreallylaw.Thesecondislawasa

collectionofsetsofpropositions—thesetswerefertoasantitrustlaw,thelaw

oftorts,theStatutesofFrauds,andsoon.Thethirdislawasasourceofrights,

duties,andpowers,asinthesentence'Thelawforbidsthemurderingheirto

inherit.'"

>SocialistView:Lawisasystemofrulesonhumanconduct,madeandratified

bycountry,implementedthroughforceofbodypolitic.Rightsandobligations

serveasregulatingmechanism,conductandrelationofwhichregulating

object.Whatlawreflectsgoestothewillofclassofreign(inthesocietyof

classantagonism)ordumbmillions(insocialist).Thepurposeoflawisto

ratify,protectanddevelopsocialrelationshipandvaluepresumeduponthe法的分類

rulingclassortheruled.

2.2ClassificationofLaw法系

Basedondifferentstandards,therearedifferenttypesoflaw.Here,weintroduce

twoissues.First,severalimportantworldlegalsystemsaretobecomparedbased

ontheirrespectivesharedheritage.Second,thedefinitionsofsomebasicdivisions

oflawaretobegivenbasedontheclassicalapproachoflaw'sclassification.

羅馬日爾曼

民法法系

2.2.1WorldLegalSystems

IntheWorld,therearefourlegalsystemsorlegalfamilieseachofwhichshares

adistinctivetradition.Namely,theyareRomano-GermanicCivilLaw,

Anglo-AmericanCommonLaw,IslamicLaw,andSocialistLaw(Chineselawwill

beintroducedinotherchapters).Theycanbedividedintosubfamilies.Thereare

alsohybrids.Further,therearesomepracticesthatareuniquetoaparticular

country.

ATheRomano-GermanicCivilLawSystem

a.Oldestandmostinfluentialofthelegalfamilies.

b.Sourcesinclude:

1)CorpusJurisCivilis(uTheBodyofCivilLaw")ofRoman

EmperorJustiniancompletedaround534AD.

3)Canonlaw:ThechurchlawofthemedievalRomanCatholic

church.

4)Juscommune:("TheCommonLaw")oflatemedievalEuropethat

wasusedintowns,fairs,andmarkets.

5)Renaissancephilosophies:

a)FrenchHumanists.

b)DutchNaturalists.

6)Seventeenthcenturynationalism:Ledtothewritingofnational

legalcodesinEurope.

c.Mostinfluentialnationalcodes:

1)FrenchCivilCode(CodeNapoleon)of1804.

a)Firstmoderncode.

b)UnderlyingprinciplestakenfromtheFrenchRevolution:

1]Therighttopossessprivateproperty.

2]Thefreedomtocontract.

3]Theautonomyofthepatriarchalfamily.

c)Organizedstructurallyinmuchthesamefashionasthe

JustinianCode.

1]Manyofitsprovisionsweretakenfrom:

a]Juscommune.

b]Frenchroyalordinances.

c]Academicwritings.

d]Customarylaw.

d)DifferencesfromtheGermanCode:法典學家

1]Writteninashortperiodoftime.

21Itsstyleandformareonethatisstraightforward,easyto

read,andunderstandabletoeveryone.

e)DifferencesfromtheEnglishcommonlaw:Itcontainsflexible

generalrulesratherthandetailedprovisions.

2)GermanCivilCodeof1896.

a)Reasonitwasnotenacteduntil1896:

1]Germanyfirsthadtobecomeanation.

2]Scholarsknownas(iPandectistsf,spentyearsdoing

preliminarystudiesanddraftingthecode.

b)CharacteristicsoftheGermanCode:

1]Incrediblypreciseandtechnical.

b]Specialterminologyisused.

c)DifferencesfromtheFrenchCode:Itismeantexclusivelyfor

theuseoftrainedexperts(notlayreaders).

d)CountrieswithCivilLawsystemsdistinguishbetweenthe

civillawandpublicLaw.

1]Publiclawevolvedseparatelyfromthemovementfor

codificationofcivilorprivatelaw.

a]Civillaw(forcivilianlawyers)isonlythelaw

containedinthecodesanditsauxiliarystatutes(that

is,thelawofpersons,familylaw,propertylaw,

successionlaw,thelawofobligations,commercial

law,laborlaw,andcriminallaw).

b]Publiclawisconstitutionalandadministrativelaw.

2]Publiclawistreatedinavarietyofwaysinthecivillaw

countries.

a]Many