chapter 2 Speech Sounds語言學(xué)

1、Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Phonetics Phonology,Can you speak correctly?,Sit and sip Sues tea. Her heart got hurt. Bill fired, Jill hired. Jeer at the year liar. Stop hopping to top. Quash quakes quickly! Deer fear mere tears. Bob Hope taps the cup.Kent sent a cent to Ant. Fox falls in love in fall.,Goa

2、t road a boat to vote. Don, t worry, but hurry, Jerry. Hannah s llama has a hammer. Shes a big sheep on Peters ship. The batters bitter butters better. The suite suits the sweet Sweeneys. Fred Ford cant afford four Fords. Thin metal tins think tinkers kings. The busy bees buzz at the big bear. Puffi

3、ns in the coffin munch muffins. 棺木里的海鸚大嚼松餅。,Introduction,Thespeech and writingare two media or substance used by natural language as vehicles for communication Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Linguists are not interested in all sounds; the

4、y are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs.,1. Phonetics,1.1 Speech production and perception 1.2 Speech organs (vocal organs) 1.3 Phonetic transcription 1.4 English speech sounds,1. Phonetics,Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and

5、 perceived. Its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.,1.1 Speech production and perception,Speech Speech Production Perception (speaker A) (speaker B),A three-step process of speech sounds,From the speakers point of view: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate

6、 the sounds, which results in articulatory phonetics.,Articulatory phonetics-the study of the production of speech sounds,From the hearers point of view: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer, which results in auditory phonetics.,Auditory phonetics-the study of the perception of speech sounds,F

7、rom the way sounds travel: how sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another, which results in acoustic phonetics.,Perceptual or Acoustic phonetics-the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced

8、 in speech,1.2 Speech organs (vocal organs),The parts of the human body are involved in the production of speech. Lungs Trachea(windpipe) Larynx(where the vocal folds are) Mouth Nose,The three cavities of the vocal tract: the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), the nose (nasal cavi

9、ty). The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.,Organs of speech,A. The pharyngeal cavity: 13 windpipe, 12 glottis/vocal cords, 11 pharyngeal cavity B. The oral cavity: 1/2 lips, 3/4 teeth, 5 teeth ridge(alveolu

10、s), 6 hard palate,7 soft palate (velum), 4 uvula, 8 tip of tongue, 9 blade of tongue, 10 back of tongue C. Nasal cavity:,Voicing濁音化,It is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced i

11、n such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.,1.3 phonetic transcription,A method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. 1.3.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet) 1.

12、3.2 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds,1.3.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet),IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. It is a standardized and inter

13、nationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886. The first version of IPA was published in August 1888. The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 2005.,Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter

14、for each distinctive sound, and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. the alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. These principles continue to be followed toda

15、y.,1.3.2 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds,Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. E.g.help help, speak spi:k Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.

16、This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. E.g. help hep , peak pi:k Diacritics: A set of symbols ( 。. , )added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.,1.4 English speech so

17、unds,1.4.1 Classification 1.4.2 Description of English consonants 1.4.3 Description of English vowels,1.4.1 Classification of English Speech sounds,A dichotomy of English speech sounds: Vowels: Speech sounds which are produced with no obstruction whatsoever of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a

18、total stopping of the air can be perceived. 2. Consonants: Speech sounds which are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.,1.4.2 Description of English Consonants,Consonants Three parameters t

19、o identify a consonant: place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless,English consonants,The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: pvoicel

20、ess bilabial stop 不帶聲雙唇塞音 bvoiced bilabial stop 帶聲雙唇塞音 svoiceless alveolar fricative 不帶聲齒齦擦音 zvoiced alveolar fricative 帶聲齒齦擦音,1.4.3 Description of English vowels,Cardinal Vowels the quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description

21、: the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low( close, semi-close,semi-open,open) the position of highest part of the tongue : front, central, back the shape of the lips (the degree of liprounding ) : rounded, unrounded the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short,Englis

22、h vowels,English Vowels,We can now describe the English vowels in this way:,Semi-vowel Pure or Monophthong vowels Diphthongs(vowel glides 滑元音),Triphthong（三合元音）,1.4.4 The sounds of English,Received Pronunciation (RP)（被接受的發(fā)音） It is referred as Received Pronunciation (RP). BBC English/ Kings English/ Q

23、ueens English. General American (GA)(通用美音) In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers.,Exercises,1.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words: coast ghost ghost boast boast most most mist 2. Why might a photographer ask the person sh

24、e is photographing to say cheese? 3. Describe the changes that take place in the course of the pronunciation of the diphthong in the word boy . 4. Give the description of te following sound segments in English. p i: g z i ne j u l rh,1.The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the

25、 initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter. The words ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment,/g/ being velar while /b/ is bilabial. Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the i

26、nitial segment,/b/ being stop, /m/ being nasal. Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel while the latter has a spread front vowel.,2. The vowel of the word cheese, /i:/ , is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile. 3.There is a glide from a

27、 relatively open back position towards a close front position, the lips changing from rounded to spread.,2. Phonology,2.1 Phonology and phonetics 2.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone 2.3 Phonological processes, Phonological rules and Distinctive features 2.4 Suprasegmental features,2.1 Phonology and pho

28、netics,Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. While both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound sy

29、stems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.,Coarticulation: The process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors, including anticipatory c

30、oarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 指在實際言語過程中言語持續(xù)受臨音影響，發(fā)生同時或重合發(fā)音的過程，分前期協(xié)同發(fā)音和后滯協(xié)同發(fā)音。 If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coartic

31、ulation, as is the case of map.,p is aspirated （送氣）in peak and unaspirated （不送氣） in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic（變音符） h, as ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.,2.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone,Phone Phoneme Allophone,Phone,

32、Phone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Its a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth) Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “ ”(phonetic transcription),Phonemes,A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinct

33、ive value, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. It is a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes. 音位是語言中有區(qū)別詞義功能的最小語音單位。是明顯的語音對立單位。是一組語音特征的抽象集合體，具有區(qū)別

34、意義的作用。如果一種語言中兩個音在不同詞中出現(xiàn)對立，它們就是不同的音位。,The word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts. By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word fr

35、om another.,Minimal pair 最小對比對/最小對立體：When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i.e. words) are supposed to form a minimal pairs, e.g. “pill” and “bill” are identical in form except for the in

36、itial consonants. Table： Some of the minimal pairs for English vowel phonemes,Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic. In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic.,By convent

37、ion, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ( ). In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions.,Allophones 音位變體,p, ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. S

38、uch variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones.,comp

39、lementary distribution: When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context. 當(dāng)同一個音位的兩個或兩個以上的音位變體不區(qū)別意義，并且出現(xiàn)在不同的語音

40、環(huán)境中，那么它們被稱作出于互補(bǔ)分布。 p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. /p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere,This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony （音位變體現(xiàn)象）or allophonic variation（同音位變體）.,Phonetic similarity（發(fā)音近似性）: the allophones of a phoneme must b

41、ear some phonetic resemblance. Free variants （自由變體）and free variation（自由變體現(xiàn)象） If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; that is to say, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sou

42、nds then can be seen as in free variation. E.g either , direction,2.3 Phonological processes（音系過程）, phonological rules（音系規(guī)則） and distinctive features（區(qū)別性特征） 2.3.1 Assimilation 同化現(xiàn)象,Nasalization（鼻音化）, dentalization（齒音化）, and velarization（軟腭化） are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one

43、sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is of a phonetic term. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation（逆同化）. The converse process,

44、in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation（順同化）.,bean, green, team, lamb (regressive ) incorrect , map ( progressive ) pancake, sunglasses You can keep it. E.g Assimilation reflected in spelling: impossible ( inpossible ) illegal,irregular,Engli

45、sh Fricative Devoicing,Phonological processes are the processes in which target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. 音系過程是目標(biāo)或承事音段(受影響的音段)在特定環(huán)境/語境中發(fā)生結(jié)構(gòu)上的變化的過程。,Phonological Rule We can represent the process by means of an arrow: /v/ f /z/ s etc. voice

46、d fricative voiceless / _ voiceless Nasalization rule: -nasal +nasal / _ +nasal Dentalization rule: -dental dental / _ dental Velarization rule: -velar +velar / _ +velar,2.3.2 Epenthesis（增音）, Rule Ordering（規(guī)則順序） and the Elsewhere Condition（剩余位置條件） Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule: an apple, an honor, an

47、orange curtain, an old lady,Plurals in English,Rule ordering （規(guī)則序次）,The Elsewhere Condition （剩余位置條件） The more specific rule applies first.,Sequential rules There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules. e.g. not as initial in

48、English and standard Chinese, but can occur in Vietnamese, Shanghai dialect and Cantonese.,If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1.The first phoneme must be /s/; 2. The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/;

49、3. The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/. *Sequential rules are language specific. E.g. spring, strike, square, splendid, scream,Deletion rule The deletion rule tells us the sound is deleted when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. E.g. sign, design, paradigm knife,2.3.3 Distinctive feat

50、ures （區(qū)別特征）,The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Some of the major distinctions include consonantal, sonorant, nasal a

51、nd voiced.,The feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are +consonantal and all vowels consonantal. sonorant distinguishes between what we call obstruents阻塞音 (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants響音 (all other consonants and vowels), with obstru

52、ents being sonorant and others +sonorant. nasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.,These are known as binary features （二分特征）because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features hav

53、e two values or specifications denoted by + and so voiced obstruents are marked +voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced.,Past tense forms in English,stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged steamed, stunned, pulled played, flow

54、ed, studied wanted, located, decided, guided,2.4 Suprasegmentals 超音段特征,Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are:,2.4.1 The syllable structure 音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu),: Onset 節(jié)首 Rime 韻基 Nucleus 節(jié)核 Coda節(jié)尾 E.g cracked k r k t ,Open

55、 syllable 開音節(jié): bar, tie Closed syllable 閉音節(jié): bard, tied English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)最大節(jié)首原則 When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.,2.4.2 Stress 重音,Stress refers to the degre

56、e of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion.,At the word level, it only applies to words w