語言學(xué)課件PPT課件.ppt

1、Lecture Four,Morphology,1,Morphology: the words of language,2,morphology在傳統(tǒng)上，它跟句法學(xué)相區(qū)分，后者研究句中詞與詞之間的搭配規(guī)則。形態(tài)學(xué)可分成兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域：屈折變化的研究，即屈折變化形態(tài)學(xué)（inflectional morphology）；構(gòu)詞的研究，即詞匯或派生形態(tài)學(xué)（lexicalderivational morphology）。,3,結(jié)構(gòu)語言學(xué)(Structural Linguistics)自索緒爾起，便或者把語素(morpheme)或者把詞(word)看作形態(tài)學(xué)的基本單位。尤其是四五十年代美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)家所使用

2、的技術(shù)時(shí)，用作語素學(xué)（morphemics）這個(gè)術(shù)語。從這個(gè)意義上說，“語素分析”只是共時(shí)語言學(xué)研究的一部 分，而“形態(tài)分析”（morphological analysis）則是一個(gè)更具有概括性的術(shù)語，也可應(yīng)用于對歷史的研究。,4,在生成語言學(xué)中，形態(tài)學(xué)和句法學(xué)同屬一個(gè)層次：語法的句法規(guī)則不僅運(yùn)用于短語和句子，而且也運(yùn)用于詞的結(jié)構(gòu)；形態(tài)概念只是在形態(tài)音位規(guī)則對句法部分的輸出作音位表達(dá)時(shí)才用到。,5,Isolating, Inflecting and Agglutinating,6,7,8,Three senses of “word”,Knowing a word means knowing b

3、oth its sound and its meaning. 1. The sounds (pronunciation) and the meaning of a word are inseparable. This was pointed out by the 19th century Swiss linguistic Ferdinand de Saussure, who discussed the arbitrary union between the sounds (form) and meaning (concept) of the linguistic sign. In this s

4、ense every word is a linguistic sign.,9,2. Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme (an abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts).,10,3. The dictionary

5、 representation of a word must include whether it is a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction. That is, it must specify what grammatical category, or syntactic class, it is in. A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, of the same theoretical kind as morpheme an

6、d sentence.,11,Lexeme -詞匯單位，詞位,語言系統(tǒng)中的最小區(qū)別性單位。本術(shù)語原來的用意是為了消除可用于正字/音位、語法及詞匯層次的詞這個(gè)術(shù)語的歧義性，同時(shí)也是為了設(shè)計(jì)一種更加合適的術(shù)語，以有利于對一種語言詞匯的討論。這樣，詞位被假設(shè)為潛伏在如下兩組語法變體中的抽象單位：walks, walking, walked. 根據(jù)定義，成語也可考慮為詞位，如kick the bucket。按規(guī)定，詞為在詞典里被列為獨(dú)立的詞條。,12,Morpheme語素,13,14,15,16,17,Identification of words,1. Stability 2. Relative u

7、ninterruptibility 3. A minimum free form Classification of words 1. Variable and invariable words that have inflective endings E.g.: follow, follows, following, followed words without inflective endings,18,2. Closed-class words and open-class words - 封閉類和開放類,Pronouns, preposition, conjunctions, arti

8、cles, etc. are closed items. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items. Exceptions: Preposition is relatively open in English. Expressions such as regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means of are now recognized as prepositions or comp

9、lex prepositions.,19,Word class 詞類,This is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. noun., pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, particles (小品詞), auxiliaries, determiners (限定詞),20,Formation of word,Morpheme and morphology Morpheme is

10、 the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the r

11、ules by which words are formed.,21,A new form of verb can be created by adding ity to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may function to account for the existence, or the formation, of a set of verbs ended with ity, such as amplify, simplify, electrify, or falsify. And these constitutiv

12、e parts in each of these verbs are morphemes.,22,Free morpheme and bound morpheme - 自由語素和黏著語素,Those which may occur alone, that is, which may constitute words by themselves, are Free Morphemes. In contrast, some must appear with at least another morpheme and are called Bound Morphemes, e.g.: dis-, -

13、ed. Prefixes and suffixes have traditionally been called bound morphemes. Root, affix and stem 詞根，詞綴和詞干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.,23,All words contain a root morpheme. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative th

14、at can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Prefix: para-, mini-, un Suffix: -ise, -tion Infix: foot/feet, goose/geese A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound, e.g.: black-. Few bound morphemes: -ceive, -mit, -tain and cur.,24,We have already defined a

15、 morpheme as the basic element of meaning, as a phonological form that is arbitrarily united with a particular meaning and that cannot be analyzed into simpler elements. This definition has presented problems for linguistic analysis for many year, although it holds for most of the morphemes in a lan

16、guage. Consider words like cranberry, huckleberry, and boysenberry. The berry part is no problem, but huckle and boysen occur only with berry, as did cran until the drink cranapple juice came on the market.,25,To account for forms like huckle, boysen, and cran, we have to redefine the notion “morphe

17、me”. Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation but acquire meaning by virtue of their connection with other morphemes in words. Thus the morpheme huckle when joined with berry has the meaning of a special kind of berry which is small, round, purplish-blue, and so on. Just as there seem to be so

18、me morphemes which occur only in a single word (that is, combined with another morpheme), there are other morphemes which occur in many words, combining with different morphemes, but for which it is very difficult to find a constant meaning.,26,How would you define the ceive in receive, perceive, co

19、nceive, or the mit in remit, permit, commit, submit? There are also words that seem to be composed of prefix + stem morpheme in which the stem morphemes, like the cran above, never occur alone. Thus we have inept but no *ept, insane but no *ane, incest but no *cest, inert but no *ert, disgusted but

20、no *gusted, luckwarm but no *luke. To complicate things a little further, there are words like strawberry where the straw has no relationship to any other kind of straw, gooseberry, which is unrelated to goose, and blackberries, which may be blue or red.,27,We do not expect to solve this problem her

21、e. Different linguists have provided different solutions over the years. We will treat these “funny” forms as morphemes, recognizing that some morphemes acquire their meaning only by connection to the morphemes in the words in which they occur. Even though linguists have not been able to agree on a

22、solution to the problem, speakers are not troubled by it. The difficulty is that our linguistic knowledge is unconscious knowledge and that as language learners and users we have greater ability to formulate grammars (without knowing that we do) than linguists have to discover what these grammars ar

23、e.,28,A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. Friend- in friends, and friendship in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational

24、 affix.,29,Inflectional affix and derivational affix - 屈折語素和派生語素,Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem, for instance, those inflectional affixes in words such as toys, walks, Johns, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single w

25、ord. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning, e.g. cite, citation; generate, generation. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between sma

26、ll and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.,30,In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final (e.g. drums, walks, Marys). But derivational affixes can be prefixes (e.g. comparable, depart, online) or suffixes (e.g. slav

27、er, teacher, workable). Inflectional morphology Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the additional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. P. 88,31,Word formation

28、 can be further sub-classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type (Derivation). Compound Noun compounds, Verb compounds, Adjective compounds, Prepositional compounds. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric (內(nèi)向的) compound and exocentric (外向的)com

29、pound. Endocentric compound (also determinative compound),32,The most frequent type of noun compound in which the second element (the base word) is semantically determined by the first element: coffeehouse, dance hall. The grammatical relations between the individual elements within the compound are

30、 largely dissolved, the order of the elements alone determines the interpretation: piano player is a player, but a player piano is a piano.,33,In the interpretation of (potentially ambiguous) semantic relations between first and second elements, perceptual categories like appearance, size, function,

31、 make-up, among others have a determinative function, cf. Gold Coast (place), gold sand (element), gold chain (composition), gold scale (function). gold finch (comparison).,34,Morphophonemics 形態(tài)音位學(xué),在形態(tài)音為層次上對語言作分析的術(shù)語。它常用帶括號(hào)的大寫字母表示，如：F, T。為了證明有必要建立這樣一種實(shí)體，最初用來說明的例子是有關(guān)一些英語復(fù)數(shù)形式中發(fā)音的交替(alternation),表示knife

32、 和 knives。英語詞中的/f/與/v/之間的交替只有在這樣特定的語法上下文中才出現(xiàn)，在一般情況下是無法預(yù)測的。有人提出，這一事實(shí)可設(shè)一個(gè)形態(tài)音位F來概括，如naiF在單數(shù)情況下可體現(xiàn)為F，在復(fù)數(shù)情況下則體現(xiàn)為v。這樣，每一個(gè)形態(tài)音位符號(hào)代表可出現(xiàn)于某些特定語法環(huán)境中的某類音位。,35,The rule that determines the phonetic form of the plural morpheme has traditionally been called morphophonemic rule, in that its application is determined

33、 by both the morphology and the phonology. When a morpheme has alternate phonetic forms, these forms are called allomorphs (語素變體) by some linguists. Thus, z, s and z would be allomorphs of the regular plural morpheme, and determined by rule.,36,Word Coinage,New words may be added to the vocabulary o

34、r lexicon of a language by derivational processes. New words may also enter a language in a variety of other ways. Some are created outright to fit some purpose. Madison Avenue has added many new words to English, such as Kodak, nylon, Orion, and Dacron. Specific brand names such as Xerox, Kleenex,

35、Jell-o; Frigidaire, Brillo, and Vaseline are now sometimes used as the general name for different brands of these same types of products. Notice that some of these words were created from existing words: Kleenex from the word clean and Jell-o from gel, for example.,37,ACRONYMS 首字母縮略詞,Acronyms are wo

36、rds derived from the initials of several words. Such words are pronounced as the spelling indicates: NASA as n s , UNESCO as yunsko, and CARE as ker. Radar, from “radio detecting and ranging,” laser, from “l(fā)ight amplification by stimulated emission of radiation,” and scuba from “self-contained under

37、water breathing apparatus,” show the creative efforts of word coiners, as does snafu, which is rendered in polite circles as “situation normal, all fouled up”.,38,BLENDS 緊縮詞/混成法,Blends are compounds that are “l(fā)ess than” compounds. Smog, from smoke + fog; motel, from motor + hotel; urinalysis, from u

38、rine + analysis are examples of blends that have attained full lexical status in English. The word cranapple may actually be a blend of cranberry and apple. Broasted, from broiled + roasted, is a blend that has limited acceptance in the language, as does, Lewis Carrolls chortle, from chuckle + snort

39、. Carroll is famous for both the coining and the blending of words.,39,BACK-FORMATIONS - 逆構(gòu)詞法,New words may be formed from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. Thus peddle was derived from peddler on the mistaken assumption that the er was the “agentiv

40、e” suffix. Such words are called back-formations. The verbs hawk, stoke, swindle, and edit all came into the language as back-formations - of hawker, stoker, swindler, and editor. Pea was derived from a singular word, pease, by speakers regarding pease as a plural. Language purists sometimes rail ag

41、ainst back-formations and cite enthuse (from enthusiasm) and ept (from inept) as examples of language corruption. Nonetheless, many accepted words gave entered the language.,40,ABBREVIATIONS 縮略詞,Abbreviations of longer words or phrases also may become “l(fā)exicalized”: nark for narcotics agent; tec (or

42、 dick) for detective; telly, the British word for television; prof for professor; teach for teacher; and doc for doctor are only a few examples of such “short forms” that are now used as whole words. Some other examples are ad, bike, math, gas, gym, phone, bus , van. This process is sometimes called

43、 clipping.,41,EXTENDING WORD FORMATION RULES,New words may also be formed from already existing words which appear to be analyzable _ that is, composed of more than one morpheme. The word bikini, for example, is from the Bikini atoll of the Marshall Islands. Since the first syllable bi- in other cas

44、es, like bi-polar, means “two,” some clever person called a topless bathing suit a monokini. Historically, a number of new words entered the English lexicon in this way. Based on analogy with such pairs as act/action, exempt/exemption, revise/revision, new words resurrect, preempt, televise were for

45、med from the older words resurrection, preemption, and television.,42,WORDS FROM NAMES,The creativity of language word coinage is delightfully revealed by the number of words in the English vocabulary that derive from proper names of individuals or places. Sandwich: named for the fourth Earl of Sand

46、wich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while he gambled; Robot: after the mechanical creatures in the Czech writer Karel Capeks play R.U.R., the initials standing for “Rossums Universal Robots”;,43,Morphology and Syntax Inflectional Morphology,Linguists traditionally

47、 have made a distinction between morphology, the combining of morphemes into words, and syntax, the combining of words into sentences. In the discussion of derivational morphology and compounding, we saw that certain aspects of morphology have syntactic implications in that nouns can be derived from

48、 verbs, verbs from adjectives, adjectives from nouns, and so on. There are other ways in which morphology is dependent on syntax, as we shall see in the discussion of inflection.,44,What is the meaning of to in He wanted her to go? To has a grammatical “meaning” as an infinitive marker, and it is al

49、so a morpheme required by the syntactic, sentence-formation rules of the language. Similarly, there are “bound” morphemes that, like to, are for the most part purely grammatical markers, representing such concepts as “tense,” “number,” “gender,” case,” and so forth.,45,Such “bound” grammatical morph

50、emes are called inflectional morphemes: they never change the syntactic category of the words or morphemes to which they are attached. They are always attached to complete words. Consider the forms of the verb in the following sentences: a. I sail the ocean blue. b. He sails the ocean blue. c. John

51、sailed the ocean blue. d. John has sailed the ocean blue. e. John is sailing the ocean blue.,46,In sentence b the s at the end of the verb is an “agreement” marker; it signifies that the subject of the verb is “third-person,” is “singular,” and that the verb is in the “present tense.” It doesnt add

52、any “l(fā)exical meaning.” The ed and ing endings are morphemes required by the syntactic rules of the language to signal “tense” or “aspect.”,47,English is no longer a highly inflected language. But we do have other inflectional endings. The plurality of a count noun, for example, is usually marked by

53、a plural suffix attached to the singular noun, as in boy/boys, cat/cats, and so on. An interesting thing about inflectional morphemes in English is that they usually “surround” derivational morphemes. Thus, to the derivationally complex word un + like + ly + hood, one can add a plural ending to form

54、 un + like + ly + hood + s but not *unlikeslyhood,48,Some grammatical relations can be expressed either inflectionally (morphologically) or syntactically. We can see this in the following sentences: The boys book is blue. The book of the boy is blue. He loves books. He is a lover of books. The plane

55、s which fly are red. The flying planes are red. He is hungrier than she. He is more hungry than she.,49,SUMMARY,Knowing a language means knowing the words of that language. When you know a word you know both its sound and its meaning; these are inseparable parts of the linguistic sign. Each word is

56、stored in our mental dictionaries with its phonological representation, its meaning (semantic properties), and its syntactic class, or category, specification.,50,Words are not the most elemental sound-meaning units; some words are structurally complex. The most elemental grammatical units in a lang

57、uage are morphemes. Thus, moralizers is an English word composed of four morphemes: moral + ize + er + s.,51,The study of word formation and the internal structure of words is called morphology. Part of ones linguistic competence includes knowledge of the morphemes, words, their pronunciation, their

58、 meanings, and how they are combined. Morphemes combine according to the morphological rules of the language.,52,Some morphemes are bound, in that they must be joined to other morphemes, are always parts of words and never words by themselves, Other morphemes are free, in that they need not be attac

59、hed to other morphemes, Free, king, serf, bore are free morphemes; -dom, as in freedom, kingdom, serfdom, and boredom, is a bound morpheme. Bound morphemes may be prefixes, suffixes, or infixes,53,Morphemes may also be classified as derivational or inflectional. Derivational morphological rules are lexical rules of word formation. Inflectional morphemes are closely related to the rules syntax. Unlik