Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word Meanings913.ppt

1、Chapter 2,Some Basic Concepts and Word Meanings,I. Some Basic Concepts,What is word?,a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.,Revision,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme（詞素，形位）,1. Definition: (morphe: the Greek word for “form”, -eme: “class of”),Th

2、e morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.,The morpheme is the smallest functioning units in the composition of words.,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,1. Definition,e.g. denaturalization,de-: shows an opposite;,nature: everything in the physi

3、cal world;,-al: or or concerning;,-ize: cause to be more, make ;,-ation: the act, state, or result of ;,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,1. Definition,e.g. studies, studying, studied,study morphemes -es, -ing, -ed:,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,1) free morphemes:,the mor

4、phemes that have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences,free roots,e.g. man, earth, wind, car, anger,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,recollection:,re + collect + ion,idealistic:,Ideal + ist + ic,ex-prisoner:,ex + prison + er,2)

5、 bound morphemes:,the morphemes which cannot occur as separate words,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,e.g.,ante-: (prefix) before,-ced-: (bound root) approach, go to,ent: (suffix) a person, a thing,antecedent:,sb. or sth. that goes before,2) bound morphemes:,I. Some Basic Con

6、cepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,bound root:,2) bound morphemes:,part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free foot.,Unlike a free foot, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,

7、bound root:,2) bound morphemes:,e.g. dict-,contradict: speak against,a Latin root: say/speak,predict: tell beforehand,contradiction, prediction, contradictor, predictor, dictate, diction, dictionary, etc.,Latin/Greek,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,affixes:,2) bound morpheme

8、s:,the forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,affixes:,2) bound morphemes:,Inflectional affixes:,affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships,derivational affixes:,affixes

9、 added to other morphemes to create new words,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,affixes:,2) bound morphemes:,Inflectional affixes:,e.g. radios, goes, Childrens Day, happiest, worked, doing,derivational affixes:,prefixes,suffixes,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of M

10、orphemes,affixes:,2) bound morphemes:,Inflectional affixes:,Indicate number, tense, case, etc.,derivational affixes:,Alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base,I. Some Basic Concepts,i. Morpheme,2. Types of Morphemes,Summary:,prefix,suffix,morpheme,free=free root,bound,bound root,affix,de

11、rivational,inflectional,I. Some Basic Concepts,ii. Lexeme （詞匯單位， 詞位）,1. Definition: the headwords in a dictionary; an abstract vocabulary item; the fundamental unit of the lexicon of a language; an abstract linguistic unit with different variants.,e.g. find, finds, found, and finding are different r

12、ealizations of the lexeme “find”,I. Some Basic Concepts,ii. Lexeme,2. Components:,1) one word:,2) more than one word:,e.g. in front of, go on, side effect,e.g. tree, fast, between,I. Some Basic Concepts,iii. Morph （形素）,1. Definition:,any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance,e.g. c

13、at, door, -ing, -s, -er,I. Some Basic Concepts,iii. Morph,2. Concepts related to morph:,1) mono-morphemic words: morphemes realized by single morphs.,e.g. bird, sad, want, desire,These morphemes coincide with word.,I. Some Basic Concepts,iii. Morph,-s: the morpheme of plurality,2) Allomorph: morphs

14、which are different representations of the same morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme；the phonetic (sound) variants of a morpheme,/s/: after /t,p,k/;,/z/: after /d,b,g,l/;,/iz/: after /s,z,t,d/;,allomorphs,2. Concepts related to morph:,I. Some Basic Concepts,iii. Morph,2. Types:,-ed: the p

15、ast tense marker,2) allomorph:,/t/: after sounds /p,k/;,/d/: after vowels and sounds /m,n, ,l/;,/id/: after sounds /t,d/,allomorphs,I. Some Basic Concepts,iii. Morph,2. Types:,in-: prefix (according to the first sound of the base),2) allomorph:,/im/: the first sound is /p,b,m/;,/ir/: the first sound

16、 is /r/;,/il/: the first sound is /l/,allomorphs,Relationship between morphs and allomorphs,Morpheme would morph morph morph morph allomorph /wud/ /wd/ /d / /d/,II. Word Meanings,i. Reference:,Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationshi

17、p between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.,II. Word Meanings,i. Reference:,e.g. If we say “The dog is barking,” we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word “dog” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer.,II. Word Meanin

18、gs,ii. Sense:,Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contextualized.,II. Word Meanings,ii. Sense:,e.g. dog:,This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, bu

19、t applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition.,a domesticated canine mammal with four legs, fur, and a tail.,II. Word Meanings,iii. Denotation,The relation of denotation holds between a lexeme and a whole class of extra-linguistic objects.,It is concerned with the relat

20、ionship between a word and the thing it refers to.,It overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.,II. Word Meanings,iv. Correlation,1. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.,e.g. I was once bitten by a dog. Mind you. There is a dog

21、over there.,II. Word Meanings,iv. Correlation,2. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.,e.g. morning star evening star,Venus,II. Word Meanings,iv. Correlation,3. Some words may have no specific denotation and still have sense.,dragon: a mythical monster represented as a giga

22、ntic reptile with a lions claws, the tail of a serpent, wings, and a scaly skin,unicorn: a fabled creature usually represented as a horse with a spiraled horn projecting from its forehead,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),i. Conceptual meaning,ii. Associative meaning Connotative meaning Socia

23、l meaning Affective meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning,iii. Thematic meaning,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),i. Conceptual meaning (denotative or cognitive meaning):,meanings as represented in a dictionary; the central part in communication,Componential analysis: a way to analyze

24、 lexical meaning (semantic components) and establish semantic fields,man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning; open-ended deceit, power-drunk, bragging, villain.,III. Seven Types

25、 of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,1. Connotative meaning:,love, care, consideration, tenderness, forgiveness, etc.,Mother ?,family, warmth, safety, love, convenience, etc.,Home ?,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,What is communicated of the social circum

26、stances of language use.,2. Social meaning:,the geographical, social origin of the speaker; the social relationship between interlocutors,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,2. Social meaning:,e.g. Excuse me, is the manager in his office? I have an appointment with him t

27、his morning. Hey, is that lazy dog still in bed? I gotta see him about something.,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.,3. Affective meaning:,Appreciative/commendatory: words of positive overtones sh

28、owing appreciation or approval. Pejorative/derogatory: words of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,3. Affective meaning:,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,What is communica

29、ted through association with another sense of the same expression.,4. Reflected meaning:,e.g. intercourse:,the act of having sex; (dominant) an exchange of ideas, feeling etc. which make people understand each other better,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,What is comm

30、unicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.,5. Collocative meaning:,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,5. Collocative meaning:,e.g. How to describe food that has gone bad and is not fit for eating?,tomatoes; eggs; baco

31、n or butter; Milk.,rotten addled rancid sour,(cf. yoghourt),III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,5. Collocative meaning:,A bit or a little collocates with words of negative connotations: drunk, jealous, gloomy, tired, worried Highly collocates with words of positive conno

32、tations: important, significant, intelligent, sensitive,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech1981),ii. Associative meaning,5. Collocative meaning:,wide awake, fully awake, sound asleep, far apart (Very is inappropriate here) tremble with fear, quiver with excitement,III. Seven Types of Meanings (Leech

33、1981),iii. Thematic meaning,What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.,Theme: the element serving as the point of departure of the message Rheme: the remainder of the message, the part in which the theme is developed,III. Seven Types of Meanings

34、 (Leech1981),iii. Thematic meaning,What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.,Father wrote this letter. This letter was written by father. It was this letter that father wrote.,IV. Root, Stem and Base,i. Root,A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity;,The root carries the main co