新編英語語言學復習知識點整理

1、第一單元What is linguistics? 什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 語言學研究的范疇Phonetics語音學Phonology音系學Morphology形態(tài)學Syntax句法學Semantics語義學Pragmatics語用學Sociolinguistics社會語言學Psycholi

2、nguistics心理語言學Applied linguistics應用語言學Phonetics語音學：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology音系學:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they develo

3、ped another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形態(tài)學:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法學:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by ru

4、les ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studiesSemantics語義學:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics語用學:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic

5、 study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社會語言學:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理語言學: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics應用語言學:findings in l

6、inguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics Other related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and

7、 computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。人類學/神經語言學/數理語言學/計算語言學1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive規(guī)定性與描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is des

8、criptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language2.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it chang

9、es through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.3.Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: (1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a lar

10、ge amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language4.Language and parole 語言與言語Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of langu

11、age in actual use5.Competence and performance 能力與運用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是語言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for hum

12、an communicationCharacteristics of language: 語言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language

13、 is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 語言的識別特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 隨意性2) prod

14、uctivity 創(chuàng)造性3) duality 雙重性4) displacement不受時空限制性5) cultural transmission 文化傳遞性 單元二Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這

15、些數目有限的一組語音構成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學and acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學A

16、rticulation phonetics(發(fā)音語音學):How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds. Auditory phonetics（聽覺語音學）:How a hearer perceives the sounds. Acoustic(聲學語音學）:How the sounds are transmitter.Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas

17、 or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔-the throatThe oral cavity口腔-the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔-the noseVibration of the vocal cords (聲帶) results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。單詞補充：01) velum: The soft palate. 軟腭02) uvula: A

18、 small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊03) larynx: n. 喉04) vocal cord: 聲帶05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層

19、，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結構或動植物器官 06) the soft palate: 軟腭07) the hard palate: 硬腭08) the teeth ridge: 齒齦09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床10) the teeth: 牙齒11) the lips: 上下唇12) blade of tongue: 舌面13) back of tongue: 舌根14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔16) velar: Articulated with th

20、e back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18) the upper front teeth: 上齒19) the roof of the mouth: 上顎20) the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The vowels (monophthon

21、gs and diphthongs) 元音（單元音&雙元音）The consonants輔音Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)用一個符號來表示一個語音的標音方式叫做寬式標音法，這種音標法常見于詞典和教科書。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.但實際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發(fā)音就不一樣。在寬式標音的

22、基礎上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標音法叫做窄式標音法。Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類vowels and constantsThe basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose,

23、or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air steam at some point of the vocal tract. Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the

24、 air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.Classification of English constantsClassification in two ways:in terms of manner of articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricates ,nasals ,liquids ,glides. :in terms of place of articulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,vel

25、ar,glottal.Classification of English vowels英語元音的分類:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低(classification of 3 groups:front,central,and back):the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度(classification of 4 groups:close vowels,semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels):the shape of the lips唇的形狀(rou

26、nded or not rounded):length of the vowels元音的長度(long vowels and short vowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels)Phonology and phonetics音系學和語音學both are the studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human langu

27、ages.語音學研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進行描述和分類。Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系學研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達意義作用。Phone，phoneme and all

28、ophone語音，音位，音位變體Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Ph

29、onemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.可以出現在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產生意義差別。/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said

30、 to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben最小對立對指出現在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則Sequential rule

31、s 序列規(guī)則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則（one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar）Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則（it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographica

32、lly represented.）Sign, design, there is no g sound./Signature, designation the g is pronounced./ Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。the main suprasegmental features are: str

33、ess, tone, intonation. 超切分特征重音， 聲調，語調第三單元Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.形態(tài)學研究單詞的內部結構以及構詞規(guī)則， 有屈折形態(tài)學和詞匯形態(tài)學兩大分支Mo

34、rpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.語素：語言最小的意義單位Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) Free morphemes: are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy.Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot st

35、and by itself.粘著語素必須和其他語素結合成單詞can not be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another roo

36、t or an affix to form a word. Such roots are numerous in English for example: geo-“bears the meaning of “the earth”. When it combines with another root “-ology”meaning “a branch of learning”, we got the word “geology” which means “the study of the earths structureBound Morpheme includes two types: (

37、1) root (2)Affix(詞綴)1)Inflectional affixes (屈折詞綴)(inflectional morphemes): Inflectional affixes: manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional2)Deriv

38、ational affixes(派生詞綴) Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative.A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix： that is added to the stem；they modify the meani

39、ng of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Root and stem（詞根和詞干）(本書未涉及)1) Root 2) StemThe differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of infl

40、ectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic UndesirablesIndividualist (stem) undesirable (stem)Individual (stem) desirable (stem)dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)divide(root, stem)Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：adding

41、word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation前綴：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Suffixes at the end of a word, are a

42、dded to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Compounding復合法 （also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems .Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English

43、. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.Features of compounds 1.orthographically(拼寫特征): a compound can be written as one with or witho

44、ut a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird. 2.syntactically(句法特征): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun). 3.sematically（語意特征）: the meaning of a

45、compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater 4.phonetically（語音特征）: the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives seco

46、ndary stress.單元四Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.句法是一個由一套數量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。Normally a sentence co

47、nsists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構成。 謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構成。The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an

48、 idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicateTypes of sentences句子的類型The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone a

49、s its own sentence.簡單句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子The coordinate sentence or compound sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由連接詞串聯起來的兩個句子成分The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.The two clauses in a c

50、omplex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.復合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成， 其中之一為主要子句， 其余為從屬子句。a complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated into another. That is, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorpor

51、ated, or subordinated, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called matrix clause.Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1. an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an

52、introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by ran

53、domly(隨意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(線形結構和層次結構)The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的線性排列與層次結構T

54、he liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的線性排列， 句子無論就其口頭或書面表現形式看， 所含的次都按線性次序排列。(表面上的排列)The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic catego

55、ry, such as noun phrase(NP),or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.句子的結構是一種由名詞詞組和動詞詞組等句法成分單位構成的層次性結構。tree diagram of sentence structure The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分節(jié)點）Syntactic categories 句法類型Words and phrases are organized according to the syn

56、tactic categories they belong to.Lexical categories 詞類Major Lexical Categories主要詞類Noun(N) Verb(V)Adjective(Adj)Adverb(Adv) 名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞Minor Lexical CategoriesDeterminer(Det)Auxiliary(Aux)Preposition(Prep)Pronoun(Pron)Conjunction(Conj)Interjection(Int)限定詞、助動詞、介詞、代名詞、連接詞、感嘆詞Phrasal categories詞組類Noun

57、phrase (NP)Verb phrase (VP)Prepositional phrase(PP)Adjective phrase(AP)名詞短語、動詞短語、介詞短語、形容詞短語Grammatical relations 語法關系Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.語法關系是指句子中名詞詞組與動詞的關

58、系， 其中涉及到主語和賓語的結構性和邏輯性。The structural subject and the structural object結構主語與結構賓語The logic subject (the doer of the action) and the logical object (the recipient of the action)邏輯主語（行動的執(zhí)行者）與邏輯賓語（行動的接受者）Combinational rules 組合規(guī)則Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短語結構規(guī)則短語結構規(guī)則是一組句法重寫規(guī)則。NPDet N (a/the man)NP-Det Adj N PP S(the tall m