冬季專項(xiàng)施工相關(guān)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)翻譯

外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 2013 年 5 月 26 日 建筑施工技術(shù) 1.1 鋼筋混凝土 素混凝土是由水泥、水、細(xì)骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空氣，通常還有其他外加劑等經(jīng)過凝固硬化而成。將可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板內(nèi)，并將其搗實(shí)，然后進(jìn)行養(yǎng)護(hù)，以加速水泥與水的水化反應(yīng)，最后獲得硬化的混凝土。其最終制成品具有較高的抗壓強(qiáng)度和較低的抗拉強(qiáng)度。其抗拉強(qiáng)度約為抗壓強(qiáng)度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉區(qū)必須配置抗拉鋼筋和抗剪鋼筋以增加鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件中較弱 的受拉區(qū)的強(qiáng)度。 由于鋼筋混凝土截面在均質(zhì)性上與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的木材或鋼的截面存在著差異，因此，需要對結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的基本原理進(jìn)行修改。將鋼筋混凝土這種非均質(zhì)截面的兩種組成部分按一定比例適當(dāng)布置，可以最好的利用這兩種材料。這一要求是可以達(dá)到的。因混凝土由配料攪拌成濕拌合物，經(jīng)過振搗并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一種需要的形狀。如果拌制混凝土的各種材料配合比恰當(dāng)，則混凝土制成品的強(qiáng)度較高，經(jīng)久耐用，配置鋼筋后，可以作為任何結(jié)構(gòu)體系的主要構(gòu)件。澆筑混凝土所需要的技術(shù)取決于即將澆筑的構(gòu)件類型，諸如：柱、梁、墻、板、基礎(chǔ)，大體積混凝土 水壩或者繼續(xù)延長已澆筑完畢并且已經(jīng)凝固的混凝土等。對于梁、柱、墻等構(gòu)件，當(dāng)模板清理干凈后應(yīng)該在其上涂油，鋼筋表面的銹及其他有害物質(zhì)也應(yīng)該被清除干凈。澆筑基礎(chǔ)前，應(yīng)將坑底土夯實(shí)并用水浸濕 6 英寸，以免土壤從新澆的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情況下，除使用混凝土泵澆筑外，混凝土都應(yīng)在水平方向分層澆筑，并使用插入式或表面式高頻電動振搗器搗實(shí)。必須記住，過分的振搗將導(dǎo)致骨料離析和混凝土泌漿等現(xiàn)象，因而是有害的。水泥的水化作用發(fā)生在有水分存在，而且氣溫在 50F 以上的條件下。為了保證水泥的水化作用得以進(jìn)行，必須具備上述條件。 如果干燥過快則會出現(xiàn)表面裂縫，這將有損與混凝土的強(qiáng)度，同時(shí)也會影響到水泥水化作用的充分進(jìn)行。 設(shè)計(jì)鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件時(shí)顯然需要處理大量的參數(shù)，諸如寬度、高度等幾何尺寸，配筋的面積，鋼筋的應(yīng)變和混凝土的應(yīng)變，鋼筋的應(yīng)力等等。因此，在選擇混凝土截面時(shí)需要進(jìn)行試算并作調(diào)整，根據(jù)施工現(xiàn)場條件、混凝土原材料的供應(yīng)情況、業(yè)主提出的特殊要求、對建筑和凈空高度的要求、所用的設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范以及建筑物周圍環(huán)境條件等最后確定截面。鋼筋混凝土通常是現(xiàn)場澆注的合成材料，它與在工廠中制造的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)梁、柱等不同，因此對于上面所提到的一系列因素 必須予以考慮。對結(jié)構(gòu)體系的各個部位均需選定試算截面并進(jìn)行驗(yàn)算，以確定該截面的名義強(qiáng)度是否足以承受所作用的計(jì)算荷載。由于經(jīng)常需要進(jìn)行多次試算，才能求出所需的截面，因此設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)第一次采用的數(shù)值將導(dǎo)致一系列的試算與調(diào)整工作。 選擇混凝土截面時(shí)，采用試算與調(diào)整過程可以使復(fù)核與設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)合在一起。因此，當(dāng)試算截面選定后，每次設(shè)計(jì)都是對截面進(jìn)行復(fù)核。手冊、圖表和微型計(jì)算機(jī)以及專用程序的使用，使這種設(shè)計(jì)方法更為簡捷有效，而傳統(tǒng)的方法則是把鋼筋混凝土的復(fù)核與單純的設(shè)計(jì)分別進(jìn)行處理。 1.2 土方工程 由于和土木工程中 任何其他工種的施工方法與費(fèi)用相比較，土方挖運(yùn)的施工方法與費(fèi)用的變化都要快得多，因此對于有事業(yè)心的人來說，土方工程是一個可以大有作為的領(lǐng)域。在 1935 年，目前采用的利用輪胎式機(jī)械設(shè)備進(jìn)行土方挖運(yùn)的方法大多數(shù)還沒有出現(xiàn)。那是大部分土方是采用窄軌鐵路運(yùn)輸，在這目前來說是很少采用的。當(dāng)時(shí)主要的開挖方式是使用正鏟、反鏟、拉鏟或抓斗等挖土機(jī)，盡管這些機(jī)械目前仍然在廣泛應(yīng)用，但是它們只不過是目前所采用的許多方法中的一小部分。因此，一個工程師為了使自己在土方挖運(yùn)設(shè)備方面的知識跟得上時(shí)代的發(fā)展，他應(yīng)當(dāng)花費(fèi)一些時(shí)間去研究現(xiàn)代的 機(jī)械。一般說來，有關(guān)挖土機(jī)、裝載機(jī)和運(yùn)輸機(jī)械的唯一可靠而又最新的資料可以從制造廠商處獲得。 土方工程或土方挖運(yùn)工程指的是把地表面過高處的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它傾卸到地表面過低的其他地方（填方）。為了降低土方工程費(fèi)用，填方量應(yīng)該等于挖方量，而且挖方地點(diǎn)應(yīng)該盡可能靠近土方量相等的填方地點(diǎn)，以減少運(yùn)輸量和填方的二次搬運(yùn)。土方設(shè)計(jì)這項(xiàng)工作落到了從事道路設(shè)計(jì)的工程師的身上，因?yàn)橥练焦こ痰脑O(shè)計(jì)比其他任何工作更能決定工程造價(jià)是否低廉。根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的地圖和標(biāo)高，道路工程師應(yīng)在設(shè)計(jì)繪圖室中的工作也并不是徒勞的。它將幫助他在最短的時(shí)間內(nèi)獲得最好的方案。 費(fèi)用最低的運(yùn)土方法是用同一臺機(jī)械直接挖方取土并且卸土作為填方。這并不是經(jīng)?？梢宰龅降?，但是如果能夠做到則是很理想的，因?yàn)檫@樣做既快捷又省錢。拉鏟挖土機(jī)。推土機(jī)和正鏟挖土機(jī)都能做到這點(diǎn)。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的工作半徑最大。推土機(jī)所推運(yùn)的圖的數(shù)量最多，只是運(yùn)輸距離很短。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的缺點(diǎn)是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加壓力挖入壓實(shí)的土壤內(nèi)，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不準(zhǔn)確。 正鏟挖土機(jī)介于推土機(jī)和拉鏟挖土機(jī)的之間，其作用半徑大于推土機(jī)，但小于拉鏟挖土機(jī)。正鏟挖土機(jī)能挖取豎直陡峭的工作面， 這種方式對推土機(jī)司機(jī)來說是危險(xiǎn)的，而對拉鏟挖土機(jī)則是不可能的。每種機(jī)械設(shè)備應(yīng)該進(jìn)行最適合它的性能的作業(yè)。正鏟挖土機(jī)不能挖比其停機(jī)平面低很多的土，而深挖堅(jiān)實(shí)的土壤時(shí)，反鏟挖土機(jī)最適用，但其卸料半徑比起裝有正鏟的同一挖土機(jī)的卸料半徑則要小很多。 在比較平坦的場地開挖，如果用拉鏟或正鏟挖土機(jī)運(yùn)輸距離太遠(yuǎn)時(shí)，則裝有輪胎式的斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)就是比不可少的。它能在比較平的地面上挖較深的土（但只能挖機(jī)械本身下面的土），需要時(shí)可以將土運(yùn)至幾百米遠(yuǎn)，然后卸土并在卸土的過程中把土大致鏟平。在挖掘硬土?xí)r，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在開挖場地經(jīng)常用一輛 助推拖拉機(jī)（輪式或履帶式），對返回挖土的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)進(jìn)行助推這種施工方法是經(jīng)濟(jì)的。一旦鏟運(yùn)機(jī)裝滿，助推拖拉機(jī)就回到開挖的地點(diǎn)去幫助下一臺鏟運(yùn)機(jī)。 斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)通常是功率非常大的機(jī)械，許多廠家制造的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為 8 m，滿載時(shí)可達(dá) 10 m。最大的自行式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為 19 立方米（滿載時(shí)為 25 m），由 430 馬力的牽引發(fā)動機(jī)驅(qū)動。 翻斗機(jī)可能是使用最為普遍的輪胎式運(yùn)輸設(shè)備，因?yàn)樗鼈冞€可以被用來送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗車的車斗位于大橡膠輪胎車輪前軸的上方，盡管鉸接式翻斗車的卸料方向有很多種，但大多數(shù)車斗 是向前翻轉(zhuǎn)的。最小的翻斗車的容量大約為 0.5 立方米，而最大的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)型翻斗車的容量大約為 4.5m。特殊型式的翻斗車包括容量為 4 m的自裝式翻斗車，和容量約為 0.5 m的鉸接式翻斗車。必須記住翻斗車與自卸卡車之間的區(qū)別。翻斗車車斗向前傾翻而司機(jī)坐在后方卸載，因此有時(shí)被稱為后卸卡車。 1.3 結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度 規(guī)范的主要目的是提供一般性的設(shè)計(jì)原理和計(jì)算方法，以便驗(yàn)算結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度。就目前的趨勢而言，安全系數(shù)與所使用的材料性質(zhì)及其組織情況無關(guān)，通常把它定義為發(fā)生破壞的條件與結(jié)構(gòu)可預(yù)料的最不利的工作條件之比值 。這個比值還與結(jié)構(gòu)的破壞概率（危險(xiǎn)率）成反比。 破壞不僅僅指結(jié)構(gòu)的整體破壞，而且還指結(jié)構(gòu)不能正常的使用，或者，用更為確切的話來說，把破壞看成是結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)達(dá)到不能繼續(xù)承擔(dān)其設(shè)計(jì)荷載的 “極限狀態(tài) ”。通常有兩種類型的極限狀態(tài)，即： 1.強(qiáng)度極限狀態(tài)，它相當(dāng)于結(jié)構(gòu)能夠達(dá)到的最大承載能力。其例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)的局部屈曲和整體不穩(wěn)定性；某此界面失效，隨后結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)構(gòu)；疲勞破壞；引起結(jié)構(gòu)幾何形狀顯著變化的彈性變形或塑性變形或徐變；結(jié)構(gòu)對交變荷載、火災(zāi)和爆炸的敏感性。 2.使用極限狀態(tài)，它對應(yīng)著結(jié)構(gòu) 的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)失穩(wěn)之前的過大變形和位移；早期開裂或過大的裂縫；較大的振動和腐蝕。 根據(jù)不同的安全度條件，可以把結(jié)構(gòu)驗(yàn)算所采用的計(jì)算方法分成： 1.確定性的方法，在這種方法中，把主要參數(shù)看作非隨機(jī)參數(shù)。 2.概率方法，在這種方法中，主要參數(shù)被認(rèn)為是隨機(jī)參數(shù)。 此外，根據(jù)安全系數(shù)的不同用途，可以把結(jié)構(gòu)的計(jì)算方法分為： 1.容許應(yīng)力法，在這種方法中，把結(jié)構(gòu)承受最大荷載時(shí)計(jì)算得到的應(yīng)力與經(jīng)過按規(guī)定的安全系數(shù)進(jìn)行折減后的材料強(qiáng)度作比較。 2.極限狀態(tài)法，在這種方法 中，結(jié)構(gòu)的工作狀態(tài)是以其最大強(qiáng)度為依據(jù)來衡量的。由理論分析確定的這一最大強(qiáng)度應(yīng)不小于結(jié)構(gòu)承受計(jì)算荷載所算得的強(qiáng)度（極限狀態(tài)）。計(jì)算荷載等于分別乘以荷載系數(shù)的活載與恒載之和。 把對應(yīng)于不乘以荷載系數(shù)的活載和恒載的工作（使用）條件的應(yīng)力與規(guī)定值（使用極限狀態(tài)）相比較。 根據(jù)前兩種方法和后兩種方法的四種可能組合，我們可以得到一些實(shí)用的計(jì)算方法。通常采用下面兩種計(jì)算方法： 確定性的方法，這種方法采用容許應(yīng)力。 概率方法，這種方法采用極限狀態(tài)。 至少在理論上，概率法的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)是可以科學(xué)的考慮所有隨機(jī)安全系數(shù)，然 后將這些隨機(jī)安全系數(shù)組合成確定的安全系數(shù)。概率法取決于： 1.制作和安裝過程中材料強(qiáng)度的隨機(jī)分布（整個結(jié)構(gòu)的力學(xué)性能數(shù)值的分散性）； 2.截面和結(jié)構(gòu)幾何尺寸的不確定性（由結(jié)構(gòu)制作和安裝造成的誤差和缺陷而引起的）； 對作用在結(jié)構(gòu)上的活載和恒載的預(yù)測的不確定性； 所采用的近似計(jì)算方法有關(guān)的不精確性（實(shí)際應(yīng)力與計(jì)算應(yīng)力的偏差）。 此外，概率理論意味著可以基于下面幾個因素來確定允許的危險(xiǎn)率，例如： 1.建筑物的重要性和建筑物破壞造成的危害性； 2.由于建筑物破壞使生活受到威 脅的人數(shù)； 3.修復(fù)建筑的可能性； 4.建筑物的預(yù)期壽命。 所有這些因素均與經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會條件有關(guān)，例如： 1.建筑物的初始建設(shè)費(fèi)； 2.建筑物使用期限內(nèi)的折舊費(fèi)； 3.由于建筑物破壞而造成的物質(zhì)和材料損失費(fèi)； 4.在社會上造成的不良影響； 5.精神和心理上的考慮。 The construction technology 1.1 rc Plain concrete is made of cement, water, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (gravel or; pebble), air, and through hardening of solidification and other admixtures, etc. To plastic concrete mixture into the template, and compacted, and then carries on the maintenance, in order to accelerate the hydration reaction of cement and water, and finally get the hardening of the concrete. The final finished goods has high compressive strength and low tensile strength. Its tensile strength is about one over ten of the compressive strength. The tension zone of the cross section, therefore, you must configure tensile reinforcement and shear reinforcement in order to increase in the reinforced concrete member is weak in tension zone. Due to reinforced concrete cross section on the homogeneity and the standard wood or steel section exist difference, therefore, need to modify the basic principles of structural design. Will be reinforced concrete cross section of the heterogeneity of proportional two part of the appropriate to decorate, can be the best use of these two materials. This requirement can be reached. Due to the concrete by the wet ingredients to form a mixture, after vibration and hardening of solidification, can make any kind of shape you need. If properly mixing of various materials of concrete mix, concrete high strength of manufactured goods, durable, configuration after reinforcement, can be used as major components of any structural system. Technology depends on the pouring of concrete needed component types, such as: column, beam and wall, plate and foundation, or continue to extend the pouring of mass concrete dam is finished and has already frozen concrete, etc. For beam, column, wall and other components, when the template is clean should be on the oil, rust and other harmful substances on the surface of the steel should be cleared away. Before pouring the foundation, the pit soil compaction and water soak 6 inches, so as not to absorb the moisture in soil from newly poured concrete. In general, in addition to the use of concrete pump casting, stratified pouring concrete should be in a horizontal direction, and use a plug-in or surface type high frequency electric vibrator tamping. Must remember that the excessive vibration will cause the aggregate segregation and bleeding of concrete, so it is harmful. Hydration of cement in the presence of moisture, and temperature under the condition of more than 50 F. In order to guarantee the hydration of cement, the above requirements must be met. If drying too fast surface crack will appear, this will damage and the strength of concrete, at the same time also can affect the hydration of cement to adequately. Design of reinforced concrete member clearly need to deal with a large number of parameters, such as width, height, such as geometry size, the area of reinforcement, reinforcement strain and concrete strain, stress of the reinforcing steel bar and so on. Therefore, when choosing concrete section need to be adjusted, trial and according to the conditions of construction site, concrete raw material supply situation, owners put forward special requirements, the design used in the architectural and headroom requirements, specifications and buildings surrounding environmental conditions such as the last section is determined. Usually the synthesis of on-site pouring reinforced concrete materials, with manufacturing in the factory standard steel structure beam and column, so for a series of factors mentioned above must be considered. To all parts of a structure must be selected trial section and calculation, to determine whether the section in the name of the strength to withstand the effects of load calculation. Many times due to the often need to trial, to calculate the required section, so the design for the first time the numerical work will lead to a series of trial and adjustment. Choosing concrete section, using the trial and adjustment process can make review and design together. Therefore, when the trial section is selected, each design is to review section. Manuals, charts, and a microcomputer and special programs, make this kind of design method is more simple and effective, and the traditional way is take the review of the reinforced concrete and simple design, respectively, for processing. 1.2 the earthwork With any other type of work in the civil engineering construction method compared with the cost of earthwork digging of construction methods and the change of the cost is much faster, so for enterprising people, earthwork is an area where can go a long way. In 1935, at present the use of wheeled machinery equipment earthwork digging method most havent shipped to. Thats most of the earth is a narrow gauge railway transport, is rarely used in the present. When main excavation method is to use shovels, or grab bucket excavator backhoe, a shovel, although these machinery is still widely used, but they just is a small part of many methods. Therefore, an engineer in order to make oneself in the earthwork digging equipment knowledge keep up with the development of The Times, he should spend some time to research modern machinery. Generally speaking, the excavator, loader, and the only reliable transport machinery and latest information can be obtained from manufacturer. Earthwork or earthwork digging project refers to the surface soil digging too high to (cut), and dump it into other parts of the surface is too low (fill). To reduce earthwork costs, fill the amount should be equal to the amount of excavation, and excavation site should be as close to equal fill earthwork quantity, in order to reduce traffic and fill the secondary handling. Earthwork design of this work falls to engage in road design engineer, because the earthwork design more than any other work to determine whether the project cost is low. According to existing maps and elevation, the road engineers should work in design drawing room is not in vain. It will help him in the shortest possible time to obtain the best solution. Earth at the lowest cost method is to use the same mechanical direct excavation soil and soil as embankment. It is not always possible, but if you can do is ideal, because it is fast and save money to do so. Dragline. Bulldozers and face shovel can do this. The largest radius of dragline work. Bulldozers pushed by the largest number of figure, just a short distance. Dragline disadvantage is that the only dig soil is lower than itself, not dig into the compaction of soil pressure, no digging in steep slope, and dig. Discharge is not accurate. Face shovel between the bulldozers and dragline, the radius of action outweigh the bulldozer, but less than dragline. Face shovel to dig up the vertical steep coal face, This way for the bulldozer driver is dangerous, and the dragline is impossible. Each mechanical equipment should be the most suitable for the performance of the work. Face shovel couldnt dig soil, much lower than its downtime plane and deep digging the solid soil, a backhoe is most applicable, but its discharge radius than are equipped with the same excavator shovel discharge radius is much smaller. In relatively flat ground excavation, if use the spade or shovel the transport distance too far, is equipped with wheel bucket LHD is than. It can dig deeper in relatively flat on the ground of soil (soil digging under the machinery itself but only), when need soil can be shipped to a few hundred metres away, and then unloaded soil and the soil in the process of unloading soil roughly leveled. When mining hard soil, people found in the excavation site often use a booster tractor (wheeled or tracked), to boost returns the scraper of digging this construction method is economical. Once scraper with, booster tractor are returned to the excavation of the site with the help of a scraper. Bucket LHD are usually very large power machinery, many manufacturers of scraper bucket capacity of 8 m after, when loaded with up to 10 m after. The biggest motor scraper bucket capacity of 19 cubic meters (full load of 25 m after), driven by a 430 - horsepower tractor engine. Dumper is probably the most commonly used wheeled transport equipment, because they can also be used for concrete or other building materials. Skip car bucket located in rubber tyre wheel on the top of the front axle, while articulated dump truck unloading direction has a lot of kinds, but most of the car is forward flip bucket. The smallest capacity of dump truck is about 0.5 cubic meters, and the largest standard dump truck has a capacity of about 4.5 m after. A special type of dump truck including capacity for diy 4 m after the dump truck, and capacity of about 0.5 m after articulated dump truck. The difference between must remember skip and dump trucks. Car dumper for tilting forward the driver sitting in the rear unload, therefore sometimes called after unloading the truck. 1.3 the structure of the degree of safety The main purpose of the specification is to provide general design principle and calculation method, so that the calculation of the structure safety. In terms of current trends, safety coefficient has nothing to do with the properties of materials and its status in the organization, usually defined as it destroyed the most unfavorable conditions and structure can be expected in the ratio of working conditions. This ratio is also working with the destruction of the structure is inversely proportional to the probability (risk). Damage not only refers to the overall destruction of structures, but also refers to the structure cannot normal use, or, in more precise terms, the damage as structure has reached cannot continue to undertake the design load of limit state. Usually there are two types of limit state, namely: 1. The strength limit state, which is equivalent to the maximum bearing capacity of structure can be achieved. Examples include the structure of the local and overall buckling instability; This interface failure, then structure into institutions; Fatigue damage; Elastic deformation of the change of the structure geometry significantly or plastic deformation or creep; Structure on the sensitivity of the alternating load, fire and explosion. 2. Use limit state, which corresponds to the structure of the use function and durability. Examples include structure instability before too large deformation and displacement; Too much early cracking or fracture; The larger vibration and corrosion. Under conditions of different degree of safety, can put the structure checking calculation methods are divided into: (1) deterministic methods, in this method, the main parameters as nonrandom parameters. Probability method, in this method, the main parameters are considered to be random parameters. In addition, according to the different USES of factor of safety, can put the calculation method of the structure can be divided into: 1. The allowable stress method, in this method, the structure stress and the maximum load calculation are in accordance with the provisions of safety coefficient after the reduction of strength of materials. 2. The limit state method, in this method, the structure of the working condition is measured by its biggest strength as the basis. By theoretical analysis to determine the maximum intensity should not be less than structure calculation under load by calculate the intensity of the (limit). Computational load is equal to the multiplied by the coefficient of load live load and dead load separately. The sum of The corresponding to not multiplied by the coefficient of load live load and dead load working conditions (using) the stress compared with the specified value (using limit state). According to the former two methods