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風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理

RiskandRiskManagement課程簡介保險(xiǎn)學(xué)是研究市場經(jīng)濟(jì)條件下風(fēng)險(xiǎn)損失補(bǔ)償機(jī)制及其運(yùn)行規(guī)律的一門獨(dú)立學(xué)科。保險(xiǎn)學(xué)作為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域里一個(gè)系統(tǒng)完善的重要新興學(xué)科,主要研究保險(xiǎn)的產(chǎn)生、運(yùn)行和發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律。Insurance,inlawandeconomics,isaformofriskmanagementprimarilyusedtohedge

against(采取措施以防…)theriskofacontingent(意外的,偶然的)loss.Insuranceisdefinedastheequitable(公平合理的)transferoftheriskofaloss,fromoneentitytoanother,inexchangeforapremium.Insuranceisacontractualrelationshipbetweentwopartiesinwhichoneparty,theinsurer,ispaidapremiumbytheotherparty,theinsured.Inreturnforthepremium,theinsurerpromisestoindemnify(補(bǔ)償)theinsuredintheeventofacoveredloss.第一章

風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理

RiskandRiskManagement第一節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(Risk)第二節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的結(jié)構(gòu)(RiskStructure)第三節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的分類(RiskClassification)第四節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的特征(CharacteristicsofRisks)第五節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理(RiskManagement)第六節(jié)保險(xiǎn)與風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理(InsuranceandRiskManagement)第一節(jié)、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(Risk)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的一般含義解釋1.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是指某種事件發(fā)生的不確定性。(既包括盈利的不確定性,也包括損失發(fā)生的不確定性)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是實(shí)際結(jié)果和預(yù)期結(jié)果之間的相對變化。只要風(fēng)險(xiǎn)存在,就一定有損失的可能。解釋2.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是指引致?lián)p失的事件發(fā)生的一種可能性。這一概念有三層含義:1.首先強(qiáng)調(diào)的是“損失的事件”的存在。2.“事件”并非特指“不幸事件”。3.“可能性”指客觀的存在,在概率上不可能等于0,也不可能等于1.保險(xiǎn)領(lǐng)域中的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是指某種損失發(fā)生的一種不確定性(uncertainty)。(是否發(fā)生,何時(shí)發(fā)生,產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果)Risk(“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)”的含義)Riskisthepossibilityofadverseresultsflowingfromanyoccurrence.Aninsuranceriskmeansuncertaintyaboutafinancialloss.TheConceptofRiskRiskisthepossibilitythatsomethingbad,unpleasant,ordangerousmayhappen.Riskexistswhenthereisuncertaintyaboutthefuture.Inthecontextofinsurance,itmeans:“thepossibilityofanadverseoutcomefromaparticularevent”.Insuranceisonlyconcernedwith“adverseoutcomes”thatinvolvefinancialloss—thatis,theriskoflosingmoney.在《韋伯斯特新詞典》中,確定性一詞的意思是:“一種沒有懷疑的狀態(tài)?!辈淮_定性則是懷疑自己對當(dāng)前行為所造成的將來結(jié)果的預(yù)測能力。很顯然,不確定性是一種主觀的狀態(tài)。當(dāng)個(gè)體無法確切知道結(jié)果時(shí),不確定性就產(chǎn)生了。而風(fēng)險(xiǎn),是一種客觀存在的狀態(tài),是在特定的客觀情況下,在特定的期間內(nèi),損失發(fā)生的可能性。ExamplesofRiskandUncertainty1)Tolovesomeoneinsecretislikeaseedinbottlewaitingforgrowingup,thoughnotsurewhetherthefuturewillbemorebeautiful,stillwaitingitearnestlyandeagerly.

暗戀一個(gè)人的心情,就像是瓶中等待發(fā)芽的種子,永遠(yuǎn)不能確定未來是否是美麗的,但卻真心而倔強(qiáng)的等待著。2)Iknowsomeoneintheworldiswaitingforme,althoughI'venoideaofwhoheis.ButIfeelhappyeverydayforthis.我知道這世上有人在等我,但我不知道我在等誰,為了這個(gè),我每天都非??鞓贰?)Ialwaysbelievethatthereexistsaplacewhererealitycannotfindme.there,thedreamisveryclose.JustasIbelievethattherewillalwaysbesomeoneinthecrowdthatyouwillrememberforeveruntilyoudie.Youcanrecognizeherimmediately.Ioftenhavethesamedream.Inthedream,Iamrunningandsearching.TheysayIshallhavemorecourageandmorelucktoreachthatplaceandfindthatperson.MaybeIhavetotakearisk,cozmaybeIwilldieinthewayofsearching.Sodareyoutogo?Thereissomeplacethatyouoncegoandwouldnotliketoleaveandsomeonethatyouwouldonlymeetonceinyourwholelife.

我一直相信,在這世界上存在著一個(gè)地方,一個(gè)讓現(xiàn)實(shí)抓不到你的地方。在那里,夢想離你很近,很近,就像我相信,在城市里來往的人群中,總有一個(gè),會(huì)讓你記得一輩子。直到你咽下最后一口氣。你一眼就認(rèn)出她。我時(shí)常做同一個(gè)夢,在夢里,我總是不停地跑,不停地尋找。他們說要到那個(gè)地方,要找到那個(gè)人,你必須比別人多一點(diǎn)勇氣,多一些幸運(yùn)。你可能會(huì)付出冒險(xiǎn)的代價(jià)。你可能會(huì)死在半途上。你敢不敢去?有一個(gè)地方,你去了就不想離開,有一種人,你一輩子只會(huì)遇見一次。第二節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的結(jié)構(gòu)(RiskStructure)

構(gòu)成風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的要素主要包括:(一)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(hazard

)(二)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故(peril

)(三)損失(loss

)(一)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(也稱風(fēng)險(xiǎn)條件)(hazard)

(教材3頁)

是指引發(fā)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故或者風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生時(shí)致使損失增加的條件。因此,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素是就產(chǎn)生或增加損失頻率(lossfrequency)與損失程度(lossseverity)的情況而言的。Ahazardisaconditionthatmaycreateorincreasethechanceoflossarisingfromagivenperil.HazardsHazardsareconditionsthatincreaseeitherthefrequencyortheseverityoflosses.Example1Storing55gallonsofgasolineinanoildruminagarageisanexampleofahazard.Thestorageofthegasolinegenerallywillnotcausealoss.Thegasoline,however,willmakelossesthatotherwiseoccurmoresevere.Example2Poorlightinginacrime-proneareaisahazard,inthattheftlossesmaybemorefrequentthanwouldbethecaseifbetterlightingwereavailable.Thepoorlightingbyitselfwouldnotcausetheloss,buttotheextentthatitmakestheftmorefrequentitisahazard.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素是指促使某一特定損失發(fā)生或增加其發(fā)生的可能性或擴(kuò)大其損失程度的原因,包括引起或增加風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生機(jī)會(huì)和加重?fù)p失程度的條件。它是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生的潛在原因,是造成損失的內(nèi)在或間接原因。根據(jù)性質(zhì)不同,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素可分為實(shí)質(zhì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素,道德風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素和心理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素三種類型:實(shí)質(zhì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。道德風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。(故意)心理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。(過失、疏忽)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素通常分為三類:1.實(shí)質(zhì)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(有形風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素)(physicalhazard)2.道德風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(無形風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素)(moralhazard)3.行為/心里風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(無形風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素)(moralehazard)kindsofhazardsphysicalhazardmoralhazardmorale實(shí)質(zhì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(教科書3頁):有形的、直接影響事物物理功能的因素,即某一標(biāo)的本身所具有的足以引起或增加損失機(jī)會(huì)和加重?fù)p失程度的客觀原因和條件。例如:惡劣氣候,人體機(jī)能缺陷。道德風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(無形風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素):由于個(gè)人或團(tuán)體的不誠實(shí),故意促使風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生,而引起或增加損失機(jī)會(huì)和加重?fù)p失程度的主觀原因和條件。例如:欺詐、縱火。行為/心理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(無形風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素):是指由于人們主觀上的疏忽或過失,以致引起或增加風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故的發(fā)生機(jī)會(huì),或擴(kuò)大損失程度的非故意因素。例如:隨意亂扔煙頭、駕駛車輛不愿意系安全帶;違章作業(yè)、玩忽職守。購買保險(xiǎn)后,更容易產(chǎn)生上述行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)MoralHazardIfanindividualcausesalosstocollectinsuranceproceeds,thelossissaidtoresultfromthemoralhazard.Ifsomebodyburnsdownabuildingtocollectinsurance,thefirecausesthedamage,butthemoralhazardisresponsiblefortheincreasedfrequencyofloss.MoraleHazardMoralehazardreferstoanattitudeofindifferencetolosscreatedbythepurchaseofaninsurancecontract.Theattitude,“WhyshouldIcare?I’minsured,isanexampleofthemoralehazard.”Ifapersonremainsunnecessarilyinahospitaltocollecthealthinsurancebenefitsratherthanreturningtowork,themoralehazardisresponsiblefortheincreasedseverityoftheloss.Howtoeliminatethemoralhazardandminimizethemoralehazard?Insurerstrytoeliminatethemoralhazardandminimizethemoralehazardbycarefullyselectingtheirinsuredsandbyincludingcontractualprovisionscausingtheinsuredtoregretthelossdespitetheinsurancecoverage.Forexample,somecontractsrequireinsuredstopaythefirstdollarsofaloss,andothersrequireinsuredstopayapercentageofeachloss.Inbothcases,theinsuredshavereasontoregretthelosseswhilestillreceivinginsurancecompensation.(二)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故(也稱風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事件

peril):是指可能引起人身傷亡或財(cái)產(chǎn)損失的偶然事件(contingentevent),是造成風(fēng)險(xiǎn)損失的直接原因,也是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素所誘發(fā)的直接后果。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故是損失的媒介物,即風(fēng)險(xiǎn)只有通過風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故的發(fā)生才能導(dǎo)致?lián)p失。

Aperilisacauseoflosse.g.fire,windstorm,hailorburglary.PerilAperilisdefinedasthecauseoftheloss.Examplesofperilsincludefires,tornadoes,heartattacks,andcriminalacts.Insurancepoliciesprovidefinancialprotectioncausedbyperils.Insurerscallpoliciesthatspecificallyidentifyalistofcoveredperilsspecified-perilscontracts.Thealternativeformatistocoveralllossesexceptthosespecificallyexcluded.Insurerscallthistypeofpolicyan

open-perilscontract.(三)損失(loss):是指非故意的(unintentional)、非計(jì)劃的(unplanned)、和非預(yù)期的(unexpected)經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值(economicvalue)的減少。通常我們將損失分為兩種形態(tài),即直接損失和間接損失。直接損失是由風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故導(dǎo)致的財(cái)產(chǎn)本身的損失和人身的傷害。間接損失是由風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故導(dǎo)致的、直接損失之外的,額外的費(fèi)用損失、收入損失、責(zé)任損失等。損失通常分為四類:1.實(shí)質(zhì)損失(physicalloss):風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故直接造成的有形損失。2.額外費(fèi)用損失(extraexpenseloss):3.收入損失(incomeloss):4.責(zé)任損失(liabilityloss):1)無法履行契約責(zé)任的損失。2)因?yàn)檫^失或故意而導(dǎo)致他人遭受人身傷害或財(cái)產(chǎn)損失的侵權(quán)行為(Tort)依法應(yīng)負(fù)的賠償責(zé)任。LossThewordloss,asitiscommonlyused,meansbeingwithoutsomethingpreviouslypossessed.Wespeakof“l(fā)ossofmemory”and“l(fā)ossoftime.”Whenthewordisusedininsurance,however,ittakesonamorelimitedmeaning.Atypicalinsurablelossisanundesired,unplannedreductionofeconomicvaluearisingfromchance.Wecalllossesnotresultingfromchance,suchasdepreciation(折舊),expenses.DirectLossesandIndirectLossesInsurablelossesarecategorizedasdirectorindirectlosses.Thisdistinctionisimportant.Directlossesaretheimmediate,orfirst,resultofaninsuredperil.Indirectlosses,alsocalledconsequentiallosses,orlossofuse,areasecondaryresultofaninsuredperil.ExampleIffiredestroysahome,thelossofthehomeisthedirectloss.Theexpenseoflivinginahotelwhilethehomeisbeingrebuiltisanexampleofanindirectloss.Ifatornadodestroysarestaurant,thepropertydamageisthedirectloss;thelossofincomeduringtheperiodwhenthebusinessisbeingreestablishedistheindirectloss.Theremustbedirectlossbeforetherecanbeanindirectloss.Propertyinsurancepoliciesarespecificwhenprovidingcoveragefordirectorindirectlosses,orforboth.三者之間的關(guān)系風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故與損失三者之間存在因果關(guān)系:“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素”引發(fā)(trigger)“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故”,而“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故”導(dǎo)致(cause)“損失”。另一種表述是:“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素”增加或產(chǎn)生“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故”,而“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故”引起“損失的可能性”即“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)”。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故是損失的媒介物,是損失的直接原因或外在原因。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素是損失的間接原因。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素的區(qū)分有時(shí)并不是絕對的。如果說風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素是一種潛在的因素,而風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故就是將這種可能性轉(zhuǎn)化為現(xiàn)實(shí)的事件,即風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的發(fā)生。對于某一事件而言,在一定條件下,可能是造成損失的直接原因,是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故;但在其他條件下,可能成為造成損失的潛在的因素,是間接原因,屬于風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素是內(nèi)在的原因、條件;風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故是外在的條件。教材(5頁)例子:下冰雹使得路滑而發(fā)生車禍,造成人員傷亡,這時(shí)冰雹是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素,車禍?zhǔn)秋L(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故。如果冰雹直接擊傷行人,則它是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故。第三節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的分類(RiskClassification)

一、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)產(chǎn)生的原因分類二、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)產(chǎn)生的環(huán)境分類三、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的性質(zhì)或?qū)е碌暮蠊诸愃?、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的標(biāo)的或?qū)ο蠓诸愇?、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的范圍分類一、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)產(chǎn)生的原因分類

自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(naturalrisks)社會(huì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(socialrisks)政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)/國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(politicalrisks)經(jīng)濟(jì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(economicrisks)(一)自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(naturalrisks):由自然力的不規(guī)則變化引起的種種現(xiàn)象所導(dǎo)致的對人們的經(jīng)濟(jì)生活和物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)及生命造成的損失與損害,就是自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故,而引起其發(fā)生的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素則稱為自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。例如:地震、水災(zāi)、火災(zāi)、風(fēng)災(zāi)、旱災(zāi)、蟲災(zāi)以及各種瘟疫等自然現(xiàn)象。自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是保險(xiǎn)人承保最多的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。它具有以下特征:1.自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)形成的不可控性(uncontrollable)2.自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)形成的周期性(periodic)3.自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故引起后果的共沾性(occurstomany;confrontedbymany;)(二)社會(huì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(socialrisks):是指由于個(gè)人或團(tuán)體的行為,包括過失行為、不當(dāng)行為及故意行為對社會(huì)生產(chǎn)及人們生活造成損失的可能性。社會(huì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)屬于特定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(particularrisks)例如:盜竊、搶劫,玩忽職守及故意破壞等行為,對他人的財(cái)產(chǎn)或人身造成損失或損害的可能性。(三)政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)/國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(politicalrisks):是指一國政府所實(shí)行的任何能導(dǎo)致其國內(nèi)或其影響范圍內(nèi)企業(yè)價(jià)值減少的行為。政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)源于政府行為,所以又稱政府風(fēng)險(xiǎn)或國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。形成政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的因素一般有以下五類(見教材第八頁)PoliticalRisksPoliticalrisksarisefromtheunexpectedinterventionbyforeigngovernments.Includedinthiscategoryaretradeembargoes(禁運(yùn)),cancellationofexportlicenses(吊銷出口許可證),contractfrustration(合同落空),confiscation(沒收),andexpropriation(征用)andnationalizationofforeign-ownedproperty.Riskmanagersmustconsiderwarrisk,internationalterrorism,andculturaldifferences(includingdifferencesinlegalcodes)whendevelopingandimplementinganinternationalriskmanagementprogram.(四)經(jīng)濟(jì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(economicrisks):是指在生產(chǎn)和銷售等經(jīng)營活動(dòng)中,由于受各種市場供求關(guān)系、經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易條件等因素變化的影響,或經(jīng)營者決策失誤、對前景預(yù)期出現(xiàn)偏差等,導(dǎo)致經(jīng)濟(jì)上遭受損失的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如:生產(chǎn)的減少、價(jià)格的漲落、經(jīng)營的盈虧等方面的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。(一)(三)(四)屬于基本風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(fundamentalrisks)二、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的環(huán)境分類靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(staticrisk)動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(dynamicrisk)(一)靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(staticrisk):是指自然力的不規(guī)則變動(dòng)或者人們行為的錯(cuò)誤或者失當(dāng)所導(dǎo)致的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。如:自然災(zāi)難、火災(zāi)、海難;死亡、殘廢、盜竊、欺詐以及對第三人的損害賠償?shù)?。靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)只有損失與不損失兩種可能,而無獲利可能的純損失風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。較之動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)而言,其變化比較有規(guī)則,可以通過大數(shù)定律加以測算。自然風(fēng)險(xiǎn)屬于靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。(二)動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(dynamicrisk):是指由社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)的或政治的變動(dòng)所導(dǎo)致的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。如:人口增長、技術(shù)進(jìn)步、體制變革、產(chǎn)業(yè)組織效率的提高、消費(fèi)者愛好的轉(zhuǎn)移等。大多數(shù)動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不僅有損失的可能,也有獲利的可能。例如:消費(fèi)者愛好的轉(zhuǎn)移,對原先愛好的產(chǎn)品,固然喪失銷路;但對新近喜好的產(chǎn)品,因而增加需求。大多數(shù)動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的變化是不規(guī)則的,難以預(yù)測。Dynamicrisksarethosewhichrelatetochangesintheeconomy.Forexample,changesinpricelevels,consumertastesandtechnologymaycausefinancialloss.Riskslikethesearenotinsurable.Staticrisksinvolvelosseswhichwouldoccureveniftherewerenochangesintheeconomy,forexample,fire,accidents.Ingeneral,staticrisksareinsurabletypesofrisk.靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的差別1.損失不同:靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)對于個(gè)體和社會(huì)而言,都是純粹損失,而動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不一定(比如:消費(fèi)者偏好轉(zhuǎn)移)。2.影響的范圍不同:靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)通常只是影響到少數(shù)個(gè)體,而動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)影響范圍比較大。3.發(fā)生的特點(diǎn)不同:靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的發(fā)生具有一定的規(guī)律性,而動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)則無規(guī)律可循。4.性質(zhì)不同:靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)一般為純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn),而動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)即包括純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn),也包括投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。(如:商業(yè)蕭條時(shí)期,商品大量積壓,此屬投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn),而商品積壓,遭受各種意外事故所致?lián)p失的機(jī)會(huì)就大,此為純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn))三、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的性質(zhì)或?qū)е碌暮蠊诸惣兇怙L(fēng)險(xiǎn)(purerisk)投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(speculativerisk)純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(purerisk):是指只有損失機(jī)會(huì)而無獲利可能的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。因此,純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)有兩種可能:損失和無損失(eitheralossoccursornolossoccurs)靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是可以承保的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。如:自然災(zāi)害、意外事故、生老病死等。Pureriskinvolvesnopossibilityofgain;eitheralossoccursornolossoccurs.Anexampleofpureriskisthepossibilitythatyoumaybecomedisabled.Ifyouareunabletowork,youwillexperienceafinancialloss.If,ontheotherhand,youneverbecomedisabled,thenyouwillincurnolossfromtherisk.Thispossibilityoffinanciallosswithoutthepossibilityofgain—purerisk—istheonlykindofriskthatcanbeinsured.Thepurposeofinsuranceistocompensateforfinancialloss,nottoprovideanopportunityforfinancialgain.ExampleMarieandJosephPattersonarebothemployedfulltime.Theyhaveused$10,000oftheirsavingstopurchasestockinagrowingsoftwarecompany.Theybelievethatthesoftwarecompanyisstrongandthattheirinvestmentwillsoonbeworthalotmorethan$10,000.AnalysisThePattersons’investmentinasoftwarecompanyisanexampleofspeculativerisk.Asaresultoftheirinvestment,thePattersonsmaygainfinanciallyortheymaylosepartoralloftheirinvestment.ThePattersonsarealsofacedwiththepureriskthatoneorbothofthemcoulddieandtheirfamilywouldlosetheincomethattheynowearn.投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(speculativerisk):是指既有損失可能,又有獲利可能和既無損失也無獲利可能的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。因此,投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)有三種可能:損失、獲利和無損失(無變化)(loss,gainornochange)動(dòng)態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可能是投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn),也可能是純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是不能被承保的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Speculativeriskinvolvesthreepossibleoutcomes:loss,gain,ornochange.Forexample,whenyoupurchasesharesofstock,youarespeculatingthatthevalueofthestockwillriseandthatyouwillearnaprofitonyourinvestment.Atthesametime,youknowthatthevalueofthestockcouldfallandthatyoucouldlosesomeorallofthemoneyyouinvested.Finally,youknowthatthevalueofthestockcouldremainthesame—youmightnotlosemoney,butyoumightnotmakeaprofit.Speculativeriskreferstothoseexposurestopricechangethatmayresultingainorloss,ornochange.Mostspeculativelossexposuresarenotsubjecttoinsurance.However,somespeculativelossexposuresmaybefinancedusingderivativesecurities.(金融衍生品)PureRisksAlwaysproduceLoss.CANbeInsured.Eg–DamagebyfireSpeculativeRisks? MayresultinGainorLoss? CANNOTbeInsured.

Eg-Gambling四、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的標(biāo)的分類財(cái)產(chǎn)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(propertyrisks)責(zé)任風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(liabilityrisks)人身風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(personalrisks)信用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(creditrisks)(一)財(cái)產(chǎn)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(propertyrisks):以企業(yè)或家庭自有、代管的財(cái)產(chǎn)為標(biāo)的而可能遭受損失的風(fēng)險(xiǎn);或是指導(dǎo)致一切有形財(cái)產(chǎn)毀損、滅失或貶值的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Propertydamageriskincludestheriskofeconomiclosstoyourautomobile,home,orpersonalbelongingsduetoaccident,theft,fire,ornaturaldisaster.(二)責(zé)任風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(liabilityrisks):以民事?lián)p害賠償責(zé)任為標(biāo)的而可能遭受損失的風(fēng)險(xiǎn);或是指個(gè)人或團(tuán)體因行為的疏忽或過失,造成他人的財(cái)產(chǎn)損失或人身傷亡,依照法律、合同或道義應(yīng)負(fù)經(jīng)濟(jì)賠償責(zé)任的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Liabilityriskincludestheriskofeconomiclossresultsfromyourbeingheldresponsibleforharmingothersortheirproperty.(三)人身風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(personalrisks):以人的生命和身體為標(biāo)的而可能遭受損失的風(fēng)險(xiǎn);或是指可能導(dǎo)致人的傷殘、死亡或喪失勞動(dòng)能力的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Personalriskincludestheriskofeconomiclossassociatedwithdeath,poorhealth,andoutlivingone’ssavings.(四)信用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(creditrisks):以各種信用活動(dòng)為標(biāo)的而可能遭受損失的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。五、按風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的范圍分類基本風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(fundamentalrisks):非個(gè)人行為引起的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),是一種團(tuán)體風(fēng)險(xiǎn),即:是指同時(shí)影響許多人和財(cái)產(chǎn)利益的損失風(fēng)險(xiǎn)?;撅L(fēng)險(xiǎn)事件的發(fā)生,常與經(jīng)濟(jì)失調(diào)、政治變動(dòng)、社會(huì)不穩(wěn)定、巨災(zāi)等相關(guān)聯(lián)。例如:失業(yè)、戰(zhàn)爭、通貨膨脹、地震、洪水等。特定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(particularrisks):是指由特定的因素所引起的不確定性狀態(tài),通常僅限于一個(gè)實(shí)體或小群體的損失風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。具有特定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的事件,其發(fā)生的原因多屬個(gè)別情形,其結(jié)果局限于較小范圍,本質(zhì)上較易控制。例如:火災(zāi)、爆炸、盜竊等。Fundamentalrisksareimpersonal,andinvolvelargesectionsofthecommunity—forexample,unemployment,war,earthquakes,inflationandflooddamage.Theyaremainlycausedbysocial,economicandpoliticalevents,buttheycanalsoresultfromphysicaloccurrences.Whilesomefundamentalriskscanbehandledbyinsurance,theyareusuallydealtwithbythegovernment—inotherwordstheybecomeacommunityconcern.Particularrisks,ontheotherhand,arepersonalinoriginandconsequence.Theyareusuallydealtwithbyindividualsthroughtheuseoflossprevention,insuranceetc.六、其他分類巨災(zāi)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與巨額風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與不可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與不可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)系統(tǒng)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與非系統(tǒng)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)巨災(zāi)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與巨額風(fēng)險(xiǎn)巨災(zāi)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(catastrophicrisk):風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生殃及的范圍巨大的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如:地震、洪水等。巨額風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(mega-dollar-sumrisk):標(biāo)的物價(jià)值巨大,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生可能導(dǎo)致?lián)p失金額巨大的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)??晒芾盹L(fēng)險(xiǎn)與不可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與不可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)的概念,隨著人們認(rèn)識的進(jìn)步,不可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可以轉(zhuǎn)化為可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)??杀oL(fēng)險(xiǎn)與不可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但是不可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)卻不一定是不可管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。系統(tǒng)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(systemicrisk)的來源主要由政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)及社會(huì)環(huán)境等宏觀因素造成。其構(gòu)成主要包括以下四類:政策風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(politicalrisk)利率風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(interestraterisk)購買力風(fēng)險(xiǎn)或通貨膨脹風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(purchasingpowerorinflationrisks)市場風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(marketrisk)非系統(tǒng)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(unsystemicrisk)是一種與特定公司或者行業(yè)相關(guān)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),它與經(jīng)濟(jì)、政治和其他影響所有金融變量的因素?zé)o關(guān)。通過分散投資,非系統(tǒng)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可以被降低,而且如果分散是充分有效的,這種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)還可以被消除。因此又被稱為可分散風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。主要包括以下四類:經(jīng)營風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(operationrisk)財(cái)務(wù)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(financialrisk)信用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)也稱違約風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(creditrisk)道德風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(moralrisk)第四節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的特征

(CharacteristicsofRisks)(一)客觀性和普遍性

(objectiveandwidespread)

(二)損害性(lossoccurrence)(三)不確定性(uncertainty)(四)可測定性(measurableandpredictable)(五)發(fā)展性(development)(一)客觀性和普遍性(widespread)(教材10-12頁)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是獨(dú)立于人的意識的客觀存在,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)無處不在,無時(shí)不有。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的客觀性決定了保險(xiǎn)經(jīng)濟(jì)的必要性。(二)損害性(lossoccurrence)損害是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)發(fā)生的后果?!盁o風(fēng)險(xiǎn),無保險(xiǎn)”發(fā)展到“無損失,無保險(xiǎn)”。(“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)”特指靜態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn))(三)不確定性(uncertainty)個(gè)體上的偶然性與總體上的必然性的統(tǒng)一構(gòu)成風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的不確定性。

1.空間上的不確定性

2.時(shí)間上的不確定性

3.損失程度的不確定性(四)可測定性(measurableandpredictable)大量風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事故的發(fā)生呈現(xiàn)出明顯的規(guī)律性,對之運(yùn)用信息技術(shù)和數(shù)學(xué)方法加以分析處理。它奠定了保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)率厘定的基礎(chǔ)。(五)發(fā)展性(development)當(dāng)代高新技術(shù)的開發(fā)與應(yīng)用,使風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的發(fā)展性更為突出。第五節(jié)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理(RiskManagement)

一,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的起源與發(fā)展

(OriginandDevelopmentofRiskManagement)二、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的概念(DefinitionofRiskManagement)三、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的基本程序

(StepsinRiskManagementProcess)四、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的方法(PotentialRiskTreatments)一,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的起源與發(fā)展

(OriginandDevelopmentofRiskManagement)原始風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理思想:非正式的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理。萌芽:1931年美國企業(yè)管理協(xié)會(huì)的保險(xiǎn)部門首先提倡建立風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理。產(chǎn)生:1955年到1964年間,隨著風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的變化和人們對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)處理的需求不斷增加而產(chǎn)生了現(xiàn)代意義的、科學(xué)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理。形成與發(fā)展:到20世紀(jì)70年代中期,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理開始進(jìn)入國際化、全球化階段。發(fā)展趨勢:進(jìn)入20世紀(jì)90年代,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理繼續(xù)發(fā)展變革,出現(xiàn)了完全風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理概念。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的一種趨勢是多種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)處理方式開始融合,另一個(gè)趨勢是金融性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的出現(xiàn),利用金融衍生品來處理潛在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。二、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的概念

(DefinitionofRiskManagement)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理(Riskmanagement):是指各經(jīng)濟(jì)單位通過對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的識別、衡量和分析,并在此基礎(chǔ)上選擇各種有效的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理工具綜合處置風(fēng)險(xiǎn),以最小成本實(shí)現(xiàn)最大安全保障的科學(xué)管理方法。其目的是以最小的成本,獲得最大的安全保障。Riskmanagementisastructuredapproachtomanaginguncertaintyrelatedtoathreat,asequenceofhumanactivitiesincluding:riskassessment,strategiesdevelopmenttomanageit,andmitigationofriskusingmanagerialresources.Theobjectiveofriskmanagementistoreducedifferentrisksrelatedtoapreselecteddomaintothelevelacceptedbysociety.三、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的基本程序

(StepsinRiskManagementProcess)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的基本程序分為以下幾個(gè)步驟1.目標(biāo)的確立(Establishthecontext)2.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)識別(Riskidentification)3.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)估測(riskassessment)4.選擇對付風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的方法(Potentialrisktreatments)5.制定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理計(jì)劃(Createariskmanagementplan)6.計(jì)劃的實(shí)施(Implementation)7.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理效果評估(Reviewandevaluationofthemanagementplan)一)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)識別(riskidentification)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)識別,是指經(jīng)濟(jì)單位對所面臨的、以及潛在的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),加以判斷、歸類和鑒定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)性質(zhì)的過程。(二)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)估測/評估/衡量(riskmeasurement;riskassessment)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)估測是指在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)識別的基礎(chǔ)上,運(yùn)用用概率論和數(shù)理統(tǒng)計(jì)方法對所收集的、大量的詳細(xì)損失資料加以分析,估計(jì)和預(yù)測風(fēng)險(xiǎn)發(fā)生的概率(頻率)和損失幅度。Onceriskshavebeenidentified,theymustthenbeassessedastotheirpotentialseverityoflossandtotheprobabilityofoccurrence.(三)選擇對付風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的方法(Potentialrisktreatments)是指經(jīng)過風(fēng)險(xiǎn)識別和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)估測之后,采用合適的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)進(jìn)行處理。(四)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理效果評價(jià)(reviewandevaluationofthemanagementplan)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理效果評價(jià),是指對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理工具的適用性及其收益性情況進(jìn)行分析、檢查、修正與評估的過程。Initialriskmanagementplanswillneverbeperfect.Practice,experience,andactuallossresultswillnecessitatechangesintheplanandcontributeinformationtoallowpossibledifferentdecisionstobemadeindealingwiththerisksbeingfaced.四、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的方法

(PotentialRiskTreatments)Thestrategiesincludetransferringtherisktoanotherparty,avoidingtherisk,reducingthenegativeeffectoftherisk,andaccepting

someoralloftheconsequencesofaparticularrisk.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的方法分為兩類:1.控制型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法(LossControl)2.財(cái)務(wù)型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法(RiskFinancing)Losscontrol(控制型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理)Losscontrolactivitiesaredesignedtoreducelosscost,andincludethefollowingriskmanagementtools:riskavoidancelosspreventionlossreduction(一)控制型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法1.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)避免/回避(riskavoidance):是指設(shè)法回避風(fēng)險(xiǎn)發(fā)生的可能性,即從根本上消除特定的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)單位和中途放棄某些既存的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)單位。這是一種消極的處理方法,通常在兩種情況下才使用:1)某風(fēng)險(xiǎn)所致?lián)p失頻率和損失程度相當(dāng)高時(shí)。2)在處理風(fēng)險(xiǎn)時(shí)其成本大于其產(chǎn)生的效益時(shí)。Riskavoidanceincludesnotperforminganactivitythatcouldcarryrisk.RiskAvoidanceRiskavoidancemeansthechanceoflosshasbeeneliminated.Inpractice,itmaymeannotintroducinganewproduct,endingtheproductionofanexistingproduct,discontinuingsomeoperations,orselectingabusinesslocationwhereaparticularperilisnotpresent.Thebasicruleisthis:Whenthechanceoflossishighandlossseverityisalsohigh,avoidanceisoftenthebest,andsometimestheonly,practicalalternative.ExampleThereareforeigncountriesinwhichAmericanbusinessfirmswillnotmakeinvestments.Thefirmsprefertoavoidtherisks,suchasconfiscationofpropertyorhavingemployeesheldhostage,ratherthanattempttomakeaprofit.Individualspracticeriskavoidanceintheirchoiceofcareerswhentheyavoidoccupationsthatinvolveasignificantchanceofdeathordisablinginjuries.Otherpeoplechoosetoavoidcareersinwhichthechanceoffinancialfailureappearsgreattothem.2.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的預(yù)防與抑制(riskreduction;losspreventionandreduction):是指在損失發(fā)生前、發(fā)生時(shí)或之后為縮小損失程度而采取的各種措施。Riskreductioninvolvesmethodsthatreducetheseverityofthelossorthelikelihoodofthelossfromoccurring.

Successfullosspreventionactivitieslowerthefrequencyoflosses.Aslongasthebenefitsexceedthecosts,losspreventionshouldbeusedtotreatallexposures,whetherassumedortransferredtocommercialinsurers.Successfullossreductionactivitiesreducelossseverity.Despitethebestlosspreventionefforts,somelossesoccur.Lossreductionactivitiesaimatminimizingtheimpactoflosses.ExamplesofLossPreventionTheuseoftamper-resistantpackaging(商品包裝拆封容易被識破的)SecurityguardsinbanksDrivertrainingandsafetyeducationprogramsWarningsprintedondrugsanddangerouschemicalsExampleofLossReductionAnexcellentexampleofalossreductiondeviceistheautomaticfire-sprinklersystem.Thissystemisnotdesignedtopreventfires,buttopreventthespreadoffires.Obviously,itintroducesanewperiltotheenvironment---waterdamage.Nevertheless,sprinklersoftenpayforthemselvesinashorttimethroughreducedfireinsurancepremiums.RiskFinancing(財(cái)務(wù)型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法)Riskfinancingdetermineswhenandbywhomlosscostsareborne.Riskfinancingincludesthefollowingalternatives:Riskassumptionrisktransference(二)財(cái)務(wù)型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法

(RiskFinancing)1.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)自留或承擔(dān)(riskretentionorassumption):是指企業(yè)或單位自己直接承擔(dān)損失的財(cái)務(wù)后果,即為自己遭受的損失支付賠償金。Itinvolvesacceptingorretainingtheriskwhenitoccurs.Simplystated,toacceptariskistoassumeallfinancialresponsibilityforthatrisk.2.風(fēng)險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移/轉(zhuǎn)嫁(risktransference):是指一方將自己面臨的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)嫁給他人承擔(dān)。Whenyoutransferrisktoanotherparty,youareshiftingthefinancialresponsibilityforthatrisktotheotherparty,generallyinexchangeforafee.另外也有按保險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移和非保險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移進(jìn)行財(cái)務(wù)型風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理1)保險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移(insurance):向保險(xiǎn)公司投保,以交納保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)為代價(jià),將風(fēng)險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)嫁給保險(xiǎn)人承擔(dān)。2)非保險(xiǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移:--出讓轉(zhuǎn)移:適用于投機(jī)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(股票)--合同轉(zhuǎn)移:適用于企業(yè)將具有風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營活動(dòng)承包給對方,并在合同中明確規(guī)定有對方承擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)損失的賠償責(zé)任。(承包合同)--公司化:Meanscausinganotherpartytoaccepttheriskistypicallybycontract(合同)orbyhedging(套期保值).Insuranceisonetypeofrisktransferthatusescontracts.第六節(jié)保險(xiǎn)與風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理一、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)

(Riskandinsurablerisks)二、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理與保險(xiǎn)

(RiskManagementandInsurance)一、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)

(Riskandinsurablerisks)可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn):保險(xiǎn)公司可以接受、承保的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)叫做可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Aninsurableriskisariskthatmeetstheidealcriteriaforefficientinsurance.Theconceptofinsurableriskunderlies(構(gòu)成…的真正原因)nearlyallinsurancedecisions.Forarisktobeinsurable,severalthingsneedtobetrue:? Theinsurermustbeabletochargeapremiumhighenoughtocovernotonlyclaimsexpenses,butalsotocovertheinsurer'sexpenses.Inotherwords,theriskcannotbecatastrophic,orsolargethatnoinsurercouldhopetopayfortheloss.? Thenatureofthelossmustbedefiniteandfinanciallymeasurable.Thatis,thereshouldnotberoomforargumentastowhetherornotpaymentisdue,norastowhatamountthepaymentshouldbe.? Thelossshouldberandominnature,elsetheinsuredmayengageinadverseselection(antiselection).一般情況下,可保風(fēng)險(xiǎn)必須符合以下條件:Commerciallyinsurableriskstypicallysharethefollowingcommoncharacteristics:1.Alargegroupofsimilaritemsexposedtothesameperil(s).(有足夠數(shù)量與類同品質(zhì)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)單位)2.Lossmustbeaccidentalandbeyondtheinsuredscontrol.(損失出于偶然而非故意的風(fēng)險(xiǎn))3.Lossesmustbedefinite,measurable,andofsufficientseveritytocauseeconomichardship.(損失明確而能測定的風(fēng)險(xiǎn))4.Extremelylowprobabilityofacatastrophiclosstotheinsurancepool.(損失非巨大災(zāi)害性質(zhì)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn))5.Purelosses(風(fēng)險(xiǎn)必須是純粹風(fēng)險(xiǎn))1.有足夠數(shù)量與類同品質(zhì)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)單位

1.Alargegroupofsimilaritemsexposedtothesameperil(s)Aninsurancepoolneedsasubstantialnumberofindividualunitstoobtainpredictiveaccuracy,whichisthestatisticalbenefitofthelawoflargenumbers.Tobesuccessful,aninsurancesystemmustreduceriskbypredictingwithinanacceptablerangeboththemeanfrequencyandthemeanseverityoflosses.Predictiveaccuracycanbeattainedonlywhenaninsurancepoolhasalargenumberofinsuredexposures.Aworkabledefinitionofalargenumberofexposuresisthatitislargeenoughtoallowforpredictiveaccuracy.Thecriticaltestiswhetherornotthesizeoftheinsurancepoolislargeenoughtoforetellfutureresultswithsufficientaccuracytocalculateasoundinsurancepremium.Theitemsinaninsurancepool,ortheexposureunits,needtobesimilarsothatafairpremiumcanbecalculated.Thefiredamagedonetobrickhomeswillordinarilybelessthanthatsufferedbywoodenhomes.Itwouldbeunfairtocombinetheminthesameinsurancepoolandchargeeachinsuredthesamepremiumratebasedonthecombinedlossesofthepool.Ifsuchanattemptweremade,theratedevelopedwouldcausetheownersofthebrickhomes(lesssusceptibletoloss)topaytoohighapremiumandtheownersofwoodenstructures(moresusceptibletolosses)topaytoolowapremium.Whensignificantunfairnessorsubsidizationoccurs,theinsurancepooldoesnotfairlytransferthecostsofthelosses.The

perilsfacedbytheexposuresintheinsurancepoolshouldbetheidenticalperils

forthesamereasonsrequiringtheexposurestobesimilartooneanother.Thatis,assumesomebuildingsinaninsurancepoolwereespeciallysusceptibletofiredamagebecausetheywerelocatednearagasstation.Assumetheotherexposuresinthispoolwerenotfacedwiththisadditionalperil.Chargingallinsuredsinthepoolthesameratewouldbeunfair.Thenonexplosion-proneexposureswouldbepayingtoohighapremiumandwouldsoondropoutofthisinsurancepool.Theywouldswitchtoinsurerschargingalowerpremiummorefairlyreflectingthecostsoftheirexposures.2.損失出于偶然而非故意的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)

2.Lossmustbeaccidentalandbeyondtheinsured

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