大學英語跨文化交流課件第四章

大學英語跨文化交流課件第四章LEARNINGOBJECTIVESInthischapter,studentswilllearnhowto:Understandthedefinitionofverbalcommunication.Describetherelationbetweenlanguageandculture.Summarizetheverbalcommunicationstyles.Understandthephenomenonoflanguagediversity.Evaluatethewrittencommunicationpattern.ChapterOutlineVerbalInterculturalCommunicationSelf-enhancement/Self-effacementDefinitionofVerbalCommunicationLanguageandCultureVerbalCommunicationStylesDirect/IndirectLanguageasaReflectionoftheEnvironmentLanguageasaReflectionofValuesWrittenCommunicationThinkingpatternsandcultureDifferentCommunicationStylesLanguageDiversityElaborate/Exacting/SuccinctInstrumental/AffectivePersonal/ContextualDialectandSociolectPidginandLinguaFrancaTabooandEuphemismTheMeaningofWordsWhatisverbalcommunicationVerbal:connectedwithwordsandtheiruse.Verbalcommunication:communicationdonebothorallyandinwrittenlanguage.SignificanceofVerbalCommunicationWeusewordstocommunicatewiththeoutsideworld.sharethepast.exercisesomecontroloverthepresent.formimagesofthefuture.VerbalCommunication----Sometimeswethinkaboutthisbuttalkaboutthat.Activity11.TwoJapanesewhoknewsomeChinesewereonedayataBeijingsubwaystation.theysawawarningsignwhichread:小心地滑！Theywereverymuchsurprisedtoseethatnobodyaroundthemwasskating,thoughthefloorwasflatandsomewhatslippery.2.Inalaundry,whenamansawthesign“whenlightflashes,removeclothes”,hetookoffallhisclothes.Studyinpairstheshortpassage,andseewhatyoucaninferaboutlanguage.

LanguageandCulture1.Sapir-WhorfHypothesisWhenanoldEnglishladyhearssomeforeignwords(meaningwater)forthefirsttime,shefeelsthatforeignlanguagesareoddandquiteunreasonable.shesaysthisisjustplainwater,buthowstrangethattheChinesecallitshui(水）,theFrenchcallitdel’eau.OnlyweEnglishgiveittherightnamewater,becauseitisnotingelsebutwater.Readthefollowingfactiousstoryandseewhatyoucaninferabouttherelationshipbetweenlanguage,cultureandthought.Discussinsmallgroups;theideasofothersmayinspireyou.AnalysisOnepossibleinterpretationisthatweareusuallyethnocentric(種族優(yōu)越感)andjudgethebehaviorofpeoplefromotherculturesagainstthebackgroundofourownculturalandlanguagerules.Onemoreinterpretationmaybethatlanguagenotonlygivesusfreedomtoexpressourselves,butalsotendstoconfineourthoughtstoacertainarea.Outofwhatourlanguageprovidesus,wefeelconfused.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis

Itdealswithrelationshipbetweenthoughtandlanguage.linguisticdeterministinterpretation---Languagestructurecontrolsthoughtsandculturalnorms.linguisticrelativityinterpretation---Cultureiscontrolledbyandcontrolslanguage.

Eg.InArabic,thecamelplayssignificantrolesinpeople’slife,sotherearemorethan40wordsfor“camel”.2.LanguageasaReflectionoftheEnvironment Theenvironmentinfluencestheappropriatevocabulary.Languagereflectstheenvironmentinwhichwelive.Eg.IntheAmazonareasnowisnotapartoftheenvironment;therefore,peopleinthatregiondonothaveawordforsnow.MostAmericansusetermssuchassnow,powdersnow,sleet,slush（稀泥漿）,blizzard,andice.

languageisinfluencedbypeople’sperceptionoftheworld

3.LanguageasaReflectionofValuesLanguagereflectsculturalvalues.

Oneoftheproblemsindealingwithpeoplefromotherculturesisthatwetranslateconceptsfromaforeignlanguageandculturewithwordsthatfitourexpectations.Eg.TimedoesnotplayaroleinNavajolife.Asaresult,theNavajodonothavethedifferentiatedvocabularyconnectedwithtimeandclocks.Eg.ForAmericans“tomorrow”meansmidnighttomidnight,averyprecisetimeperiod.ToMexicans,incontrast,ma?anameansinthefuture,soon.3.LanguageasreflectionofvaluesChinesefamily:bigandhierarchical(等級森嚴）Chinesekinshiptermsreflecttheimportanceofourfamilysystem,elaboratesystemofkinshipterms.祖母、外祖母、哥哥、弟弟、年長（權(quán)威moreauthoritiesthan弟弟）長子、長孫（繼承財產(chǎn)inheritthemoney,thehouse,etc.theheir)createdifferentassociationsandimages4.TheMeaningofWordsWorddifferencesareobviousinvariouslanguages.Therelationbetweenwordanditsmeaningisarbitrary.Forexle,inChinese,weliveina房子.InEnglish,weliveinahouse.InSpanish,weliveinacasa.InThai,weliveinaban.4.TheMeaningofWords

Sometimesdifferentculturesuseidenticalwordsthathaveratherdifferentmeanings.Theresultscanbehumorous,annoying,orcostly,dependingonthecircumstances.Eg.FortheAmerican,“administration”intheuniversitycontextmeansdepartmentchairordean.FortheFrench,“administration”meansupper-levelclerical(神職人員）staff.Activity:ReadthefollowingmoviestoryTheGodMustBeCrazyandthinkaboutwheredothemeaningsofthewordscomefrom?

InadesertsomewhereinAfrica,Jingo,atribesman,pickedupanobjectdroppedfromapassingplane.Whatwasit?Jingoandfellowtribesmenactivatedtheirwordknowledgeandreachedaninterpretationoftheobject,namelyitmustbesomethingfromtheirGod.Sincekidsalltriedhardtoownitandstartedfighting.whichneveroccurredbefore,thetribalheadthoughtthattheirGodhadsentamessageofsomesorttowarnthemthatsthbadwasgoingtobefallthem.AdecisionwasmadethatJingomustgototheedgeoftheearthandthrowtheobjectaway.Infact,itwasonlyanemptyCoca-Colabottle.

Denotation(指示意義、概念意義)

(theprimary,surfacemeaning,orexplicitmeaning,orconceptualmeaning)Lexicalmeaning

Connotation(隱含意義、內(nèi)涵意義)(thesocio-culturaland“personal”association,ortheimplicitmeaning,theimplicationofaword)

從事政治、關心政治，特別是以政治為生涯的人(apersonwhosebusinessispolitics)

politician

不講原則，當面一套，背后一套，能言善辯，言而無信的人(apersonwhodoesn’tusuallykeephispromises,oftencheatsforhisownselfishpurpose)

TypesofthewordmeaningsWhatdeterminestheconnotationsofwords?Culturedoes.TypesofthewordmeaningsConventionalmeaninghasatleasttwokindsofinterpretation.Studythecaseabout終身大事andtrytoidentifythisterm’stwokindsofmeaning.

InaCCTVquizprogramhostedbyWangXiaoya,anAmericanguestwhocouldspeaksomeChinesewastochoosethecorrectmeaningof終身大事fromthefollowingfourchoices;工作，事業(yè)，婚姻，生死.Althoughhefullyunderstandtheliterarymeaningofthisterm,hedidn’tworkoutthemeaningweChineseattachtoituntilthehostgavehimsomehint.Whydidhehavedifficultyfiguringouttheimpliedmeaning?Analysis:TheproblemtheAmericanmetisthatheknewtheterm’sdenotation,butnotitsconnotation.Ingeneral,whencommunicationwithsomeonefromone’sownculture,theprocessofusingwordstorepresenttheirexperiencesismucheasierbecausewithinaculturepeoplesharemanysimilarexperience.Theprocessismoreproblematicwhencommunicationisperformedbetweenpeoplefromdistinctculture,becausetheirexperience,beliefs,values,traditions,andthelikearedifferent.

Wordmeaning:equivalenceindifferentlanguages?Exle1:Inthe1990s,thereturnofHongKongtoChinawasaheatedtopicinmanymedia.ButtheChineseterm香港回歸hastwoversionsinEnglish.ThetermwhichwasusedinEnglishnewspaperspublishedinchinawas“return”,whileintheWestthechosentermwas“revert”.Forexle:Thereportwasdividedintoseveralparts…ensuringthesmoothreturnofHongKongandpromotingthereunificationofthemotherland.(BeijingReview.Mar.17-23.1997.p.7)HewillofficiallytakeofficeonJuly1,1997,thedayHongKongrevertstoChina.(Times.Dec.23.1996.p.47)Analysis:Besidestheirdenotations,both“return”and“revert”havepoliticalimplications.AccordingtoOxfordEnglishDictionary(1998),oneofthedefinitionsof“return”istherecoveryofsthtakenbyothers,especiallyillegally.“revert”,however,canbealegaltermthatreferstothereturntotheoriginalownerbyreversion.Therefore,inthespecialcontextofHongKongin1997,“revert”hasaspecificpoliticalimplicationthatBritain’soccupationofHongKonganditsreturntoChinawasbasedontheagreementbetweentheBritishgovernmentandtheChinesegovernment.Exle2“紅”（red）:usuallyassociatedwithcelebrationsandjoyfuloccasionsinbothculture.*紅利、紅運、分紅、紅榜、紅包、開門紅、滿堂紅、大紅人、走紅、紅極一時、紅得發(fā)紫(But紅眼病inEnglishisgreeneyed)*紅旗、紅軍、紅心、紅五星、紅袖章、紅領巾、紅色政權(quán)、紅色根據(jù)地、紅色娘子軍*red-letterday(holidayssuchasChristmasandotherspecialdays.)*Rollouttheredcarpetforsb.(togivealavishwelcome)*However,redinEnglishalsohassomenegativeconnotations.Forinstance,thethiefwascaughtred-handed.Otherexlesare“getorgointothered”(beindebt).“Red-lightdistrict”(apartofatownwhereonecanhireprostitutes.SothemodernChineseBeijingoperaTHEREDLANTERNSTORYwasoftenmisunderstoodbynativeEnglishspeakers.Exle3“狗”（dog）*狗急跳墻、狗仗人勢、狼心狗肺、雞鳴狗盜、狗頭軍師、雞零狗碎、蠅營狗茍*Youluckydog.（你這家伙真幸運）Everydoghasitsday.(凡人皆有得意日）Heworkedlikeadog.Youcan’tteachanolddognewtricks.（上年紀的人學不了新玩意，意思就是新人的學習能力更強，更快接受新事物）Discussion:

Canyoufigureoutthedifferentculturalconnotationsofthefollowingwords?“農(nóng)民”（peasant）“龍”（dragon）“孔雀”（peacock）FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations1.Termsinonelanguagethathaveequivalents(ornearequivalents)intheotherlanguage.AD=BD,AC=BC(samedenotationandconnotationincultureAandB)

Pigand“豬”Fox,forexle,inbothlanguagesitsdenotationisananimal,anditsconnotationcunning.FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations2.Termsinonelanguagethatfindnocounterpartsintheotherlanguage.AD=BD,AC?0,BC=0(samedenotation,Awithconnotation,Bwithoutconnotation)

Forexle,inChinesethereare三伏and三九，forwhichyoufindnoequivalentsinEnglish.Englishwordslikedemocracy,science,tank,privacy,brunch,carpool,commuter,splashdown,etc.don’thaveanyequivalentsinChinese.

AD=BD,AC?0,BC=0

“松、柏、鶴、桃”（pine,cypress,crane,peach）

InChinese,松、柏、鶴、桃standforlongevity.InChinesepaintingsandartdesigns,松and鶴oftenappeartogetherwiththemotto松鶴延年.ButtheirequivalentsinEnglishpine,cypress,craneandpeachdonothavesuchconnotations.Pine,bambooandplumblossomareadmiredinChinabecausetheyarebelievedtopossessaqualitythatishighlyvalued---resistingcoldness.InEnglishtheyarejustplants.“梅、蘭、竹、菊”（plumblossom,orchid,bamboo,chrysanthemum）FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations3.Termsintwodifferentlanguagesthatappeartorefertothesameobjectsorconceptsonthesurface,butmayactuallyrefertoquitedifferentthingsorhavedifferentconnotations.AD=BD,AC?BC(samedenotation,differentconnotation) Forexle,愛人andloverarenotatallthesame.Thewordforperson’sspouseinEnglishissimply:husband,wife,fiancé,not“l(fā)over”whichreferstoamaninlovewithorhavingasexualrelationshipwithawomanoutsideofmarriage.AD=BD,AC?BC

干部and單位aretwointerestingterms.干部ismostcommonlyrenderedinEnglishascadre.Butacadreisnotthesameasa干部。Furthermore,cadreisnotacommonword.ManyEnglish-speakingpeopledon’tknowwhatitmeans;whosewhodoknowpronounceitindifferentways---ithasthreeorfourcommonpronunciations.Othertermshavebeensuggestedassubstitutes:official,functionary,administrator,etc.butnoneoftheseisexactlythesameas干部。InEnglishthereisnosuchgeneraltermas單位torefertoaplacewhereoneworks.Ifyoutranslateitasaschool,acompany,afactoryoranyotherinstitution,itdoesn’tmeanthesameasa單位whichinChinatakescareofalmosteverythingwearetoencounterinourlifeandwork.NoneoftheorganizationsinAmericaorotherWesterncountriesdothesame.

FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations4.Termsinonelanguagethatseemtohaveequivalentsintheother,buttheseso-calledequivalentsareonlypartlyequivalent.

E.g..

AnAmerican(A)attendedherChinesefriend’s(B)wedding.Twoyearslater,thetwometagain.A:Haveyoustartedafamily?B:Oh,yes.Youattendedmywedding,remember?A:Imeanifyou’vehadchildren.Moreexles知識分子andintellectual.

InChina,theterm知識分子generallyincludescollegeteachers,collegestudents,andsuchpeopleasmedicaldoctors,engineers,interpreters----peoplewhohavehadacollegeeducationandmiddleschoolteachers.InmanyChineseruralareas,evenmiddleschoolstudentsareconsidered知識分子.InEnglishspeakingcountries,however,intellectualswouldincludeonlypeopleofhighacademicstatussuchascollegeprofessors,butnotordinarycollegestudents.IntellectualisnotalwaysacomplimentaryterminEnglish.Itissometimesusedinaderogatorysense.玩andplay.AnAmericanteacherwasstunnedwhenmorethanonemalestudentsaidtoher:“Iplayedwithmygirlfriendyesterday.”AccordingtotheAmericanteacher,playheremeanssexrelationship.Itdoesn’thavethesamemeaningasin“playfootball,basketball”etc.FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations5.Thingsorconceptsthatarerepresentedbyoneorperhapstwotermsinonelanguage,butbymanymoretermsintheotherlanguage.

InChinesetherearetwosetsofnameszumu/nainai,waizumu/waipoforoneEnglishword“grandmother”.律師.Lawyeristhegeneraltermforapersontrainedinthelawandauthorizedtoadviseorrepresentothersinthelegalmatters.SolicitoranditsAmericanequivalentattorneyusuallyrefertoqualifiedlawyerslegallyempoweredtoactforaclient,asindrawingupcommercialorothercontracts,settlingpropertytransactions,andrepresentingclientsinlowercourtjurisdictions.BarristeranditsAmericanequivalentattorneyarehighlyqualifiedlegalpeopleandusuallyrepresentinthehighercourtjurisdictions.InChinese,however,thereisonlyoneterm

律師。Summary:languageandcultureLanguageisareflectionofculture,andcultureisareflectionoflanguage.Cultureinfluenceslanguagebywayofsymbolsandrulesforusingthosesymbols,aswellasourperceptionsoftheuniverse(themeaningassociatedwiththesymbols).Language,ontheotherhand,wouldseemtohaveamajorimpactonthewayanindividualperceivesandconceptualizestheworld.Case:DragonandBrandingListentothefollowingpassageandanswerthequestions:WasthedragonselectedasoneofthefiveBeijingOlympicmascots？WhatisthedifferencebetweenWesternandChineseassociationswithrespecttothedragon?Accordingtotheauthorof“TracesoftheDragon”,whyisthedragonusedasatotem?Cultureinfluencesthestyleofcommunicationatgreatlevel.Thecommunicationstyleisconcernedwiththeuseoflanguage.VerbalCommunicationStyles1.DirectandIndirectVerbalInteractionStyles

Directstylesareoftenusedinlow-context,individualisticculture.CulturessuchastheU.S.A,England,Australia,Germany,preferthedirectstyle.IntheUnitedStates,peopleoftenusetheexpression“forsure”,“noquestion","withoutdoubt”.Inaindirectcommunicationstyle,whichisoftenseeninhigh-contextandcollectivisticcultures,speakersusuallyhideorhinttheirintentionsduringinteraction.Inhigh-contextcultures,thereisnoneedtotelleverymessage.Trueunderstandingisimplicit,comingnotfromwordsbutfromactionsintheenvironment.ManyAsiancountries,suchasChina,Japan,useindirectstyle.Savingfaceandkeepingharmonyinsocialrelationshipsarehighlyvaluedinthesecultures.1.DirectandIndirectVerbalInteractionStylesInthedirectverbalstyle,statementsclearlyrevealthespeaker’sintentions.

Eg.U.S.Americanstendtouseastraightforwardformofrequest.

Ininterculturalbusinessnegotiationsettings,Americannegotiatorsaremission-driven,andtheyexpresstheiroffersopenly.Theymaysay“l(fā)et’sgotothepoint”,Theyliketobeopenlychallengedforthenegotiation,andtheythinkitisquitenormaliftheyrunintoconflictwithanypartyconcerned.Intheindirectverbalstyle,ontheotherhand,verbalstatementstendtohidethespeaker’sactualintentions.

Eg.Chinesetendtoaskforafavorinamoreroundabout（繞彎的）andimplicitway.

2.Self-Enhancement（自我顯揚）

andSelf-Effacement(謙遜）VerbalStylesTheself-enhancementverbalstyleemphasizestheimportanceofboastingaboutone’saccomplishmentsandabilities.Eg.Intheclassifiedads,Americanadmightbeginwith,“Ahandsome,athleticmalewithagoodsenseofhumorseeksafun-lovingpartner…”

Theself-effacementverbalstyle,ontheotherhand,emphasizestheimportanceofhumblingoneselfviaverbalrestraints,hesitationsandmodesttalk.Eg.Intheclassifiedads,Japaneseadmightread,“AlthoughIamnotverygood-looking,I’mwillingtotrymybest.”DifferentWaysofServingTea3.Elaborate（詳盡的),ExactingandSuccinct(簡明的）StylesAnelaboratestyleemphasizes

flashyandembellished（美化）language.ThisstyleofcommunicationcanbeseeninmanyArab,MiddleEastern,andAfro-American（美國黑人）

cultures.Anexactingstyle,wherepersonssaynomoreorlessthanisneeded,isusedbyAmericans.Asuccinctstyleischaracterizedbytheuseofconcisestatements,understatements,andevensilence.AsuccinctstylecanbefoundinJapan,China,andsomeNativeAmericancultures.4.PersonalandContextualStyleThepersonalcommunicationstyleemphasizestheindividualidentityofthespeaker.Eg.Englishhasonlyoneformforthesecondperson,thatis,you.Thecontextualstylehighlightsone’sroleidentityandstatus.Eg.Chinese,GermanandFrench,forexle,haveinformalandformalformsofthepronounyou(你/您;du/Sie;tu/vous).5.InstrumentalandAffective(情感的）StyleAninstrumentalverbalstyleissender-basedandgoal-outcomebased.Theinstrumentalspeakerusescommunicationtoachievesomegoaloroutcome.Theburdenofunderstandingoftenrestswiththespeaker.Instrumental-styleusersusuallybelievethatcommunicationshouldendaftersomegoalhasbeenattained.AmericanmenuseinstrumentalstylemoreoftenthanAmericanwomendo.Anaffectivecommunicationstyleisreceiverandprocessoriented.Theaffectivespeakerisconcernednotsomuchwiththeoutcomeofthecommunication,butwiththeprocess.Theresponsibilityofunderstandingrestswithboththespeakerandthelistener.Affectivespeakerscarefullywatchforthereactionsoftheirlisteners.Forexle,Frenchpeopleprefertoestablishamoodorfeeling,underwhichcircumstancesintuitionisrequired.InChina,itisimportanttoengageinsmalltalkbeforeinitiatingbusinessandtocommunicatewhattheygiveorreceive.Todosowouldremindpeopleofimmediatepersonalprofits,whichconflictswiththeConfuciannotionofmutualfaithfulness.VideotimeHenryHiggins,anarrogantprofessorofphonetics,wagerswithnewacquaintance,ColonelPickering,thathecanteachanywomantospeakso“properly”thathecouldpassheroffasaduchess.ThepersonwhomheisshownthusteachingisoneElizaDoolittle,ayoungwomanwithastrongCockneyaccentwhoissellingflowersonthestreet.Elizagoesthroughmanyformsofspeechtraining.Atfirst,shemakesnoprogressbutjustasshe,Higgins,andPickeringareexhaustedandabouttogiveup,HigginssoftenshisattitudeandgivesaneloquentspeechaboutthebeautyandhistorybehindtheEnglishlanguage.Elizabeginstospeakwithanimpeccableupperclassaccent.HigginstakesheronherfirstpublicappearancetotheAscotRacecourse,whereshemakesagoodimpressionwithherstilted,butgenteelmanners,onlytoshockeveryonebyasuddenandvulgarlapseintoCockneyusage.NormsofSocialInteractionFormsofAddressGreetingsandFarewellComplimentsandResponsesGratitudeandThanksInvitationAppointmentandVisitingFormsofAddress1）AddressingInmanyEnglish-speakingcountries,peopleaddresseachotherbyjustusingtheirfirstnames.ThisisparticularlytrueintheUS,whereequalityisgreatlyvaluedondifferentlevelsofsociallife.FormsofAddressReadthefollowingcasesandthinkaboutthequestionsaftereachother.1.InChina,weaddressastrangerwithusingwordssuchas“Grandpa”or“Grandma”,“Brother",or“Sister”.Whydowedososincethatstrangerisnotconnectedtousbyblood?HowdoesthissoundtoanEnglishear?2.WeChineseroutinelyusemanyposition-linkedtitlestoaddresspeople,suchas王經(jīng)理，馬局長，張主任，李醫(yī)生，etc.DoEnglishnativespeakershavesimilarcustoms?Howdoyouusuallyaddresseachother?GreetingsandFarewellTypicalChinesegreetings a.Oneofthemostconventionalwaystogreetistosayhis/hername,addingatermofrespect:LiXiansheng,Mr.Li,b.“whereareyougoing?”“whatareyougoingtodo?”or“Haveyoueaten?”isnotagenuinequestionforChinese.c.Functionalgreeting“辛苦了”inChinese.Forexle,aninterpretertranslated:您一路上辛苦了shouldbe:didyouhaveagoodtrip/didyouenjoyyourtrip?Ratherthan“Iamafraidyoumusthavehadatiringjourney.”ComplimentsandResponsesReadthefollowingcasesandanswerandquestionsaftereachone.a.AyoungChinesewomanwhowasnewintheUSwascomplimentedforthelovelydressshewaswearing.“it’sexquisite.Thecolorsaresobeautiful!”Howdoyouthinksheresponded?WhatwouldanAmericanwomanrespond?ComplimentsandResponsesb.ACanadianwomanacquaintanceofaChineseartteacheraskedhimtolookoveranarticlethatshehadwrittenaboutChinesepainting.Heagreed,butaddedsomethingpolitely.Whatdoyouthinkhewouldliketoadd?GratitudeandThanksExpressingthanksisuniversallyheldasbeingcivilized,indicatingyourappreciationofthefavor.ThisistrueofboththeChineseandwesterncultures.SomeAmericantouristssaid“thankyou”totheinterpreterwhohelpedthemduringthetour.Theinterpreterreplied,“it’smydutytodoso.”thisisappropriateintheChinesecontext.ButisitappropriateintheEnglishcontext?AppointmentandVisitingAmerica:whetheritistoseeadoctor,aprofessor,afriendandevenarelative,isusuallyarrangedbyappointment.Germany:similartoAmerica.France:neverdropinunannouncedtoahome,nomatterhowwellyouthinkyouknowthehosts.Italy:youcandropinanytimewithoutcallingfirst.LanguageDiversityThenotionofalanguageisnotmonolithic（整體的）

andtherereallyexistmanytypesorvarietiesofthesamelanguage.Somelanguagevariationsresultfromthelanguageuser,thatis,hisorhergeographicalorigin(dialect),orhisorhersocialcondition(sociolect社會方言).However,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthecircumstancesofcommunication,suchaspidgin（在貿(mào)易中交往中形成的不同語種的混雜語言）

andLinguaFranca（混合國際商業(yè)用語）,taboo（禁忌）

andeuphemism（委婉語）aswellasjargon（行話，黑話）.

Diversity–WHAT?valuesmaritalstatusethnicity/racereligionorbelief

rural/urbanlivingage

upbringinggenderdisabilitylanguageDIVERSITY1.DialectsandSociolectsDialectsrefertogeographicaldifferencesandthesedifferencescanbenational,regionalorlocal.Sociolectsrefernotonlytoone’ssocialconditionbutalsotoone’sstyleaccordingtothecommunicativesituation.Eg.AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish;NorthernEnglishdialectsandSouthernEnglishdialects;LondondialectandManchester

dialect.Eg.So-called“ReceivedPronunciation”inBritishEnglishhasBecomecharacteristicofupperclassspeechinBritaininthe19thcentury.Inaformalsituation,onemightsay“Howdoyoudo,Mr.Mullins?”but,inaninformalsituation,onecouldsay“Hi,Jim”or“How’rethingsgoing?”2.PidginandLinguaFranca(通用語）Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.2007版金山詞霸提供的美國傳統(tǒng)詞典對其的解釋為：由兩種或多種語言混合而成的一種簡化的說話方式，語法和詞匯較初等，被用于不同語言者進行交流，不作為第一語言或母語。在熊學亮教授所著《CHINESEENGLISH》一文中，它是一種消極的語言現(xiàn)象，極端例子為難以為英語母語者理解的NOTHREENOFOUR（不三不四）。

不是為了說不同語言的人的交流出現(xiàn)的，而是一個有中國特色的中文語境的交流方式實際使用的仍是漢語語法英語經(jīng)常以名詞或名詞性短語，特別是縮略語形式插入漢語語境（作動詞、形容詞等也不少見）英語的使用通常是正確的，不是CHINGLISH.所以，類似PEOPLEMOUNTAINPEOPLESEA這樣的說法并不是本文Pidgin所指的對象。Eg.“Longtimenosee!”isanexleofapidginexpressioncoinedbyearlyChineseimmigrantsintheUnitedStates.新時代的Pidgin（特指中文夾雜英文）

典型性Pidgin語段一例：APEC的記者招待會后，我約了CCTV的朋友和一群MBA、MPA的研究生，討論中國加入WTO后IT業(yè)前景，以及IT業(yè)對GDP的影響。隨后，我們?nèi)TV，大唱卡拉OK。

普通英文單詞、詞組。

Cover，“替”的意思。如：“明天你休假誰來cover你啊？”沒人說“誰來替你？”原因或許是外企員工比較忌諱說被人“替代”的意思吧。Rotation，本意“旋轉(zhuǎn)”，此處指“在不同部門/區(qū)域之間輪換工作”，現(xiàn)在有個說法叫“輪崗”，但會引起歧義。Level，不直接說級別、水平等，對講求中庸之道，待人接物不傷和氣的中國人來說，或許是一種很好的避諱的方式。Presentation，這是個在高校中出現(xiàn)頻率也極高的詞。就我自身經(jīng)歷而言，所有要求學生做presentation的老師在下達要求時都沒用“演示”等正確但不精確的中文翻譯。有人推薦用“講演”這一譯法，的確比較貼切，但也并未流行起來。盡管英語原詞有四個音節(jié)之長，中文翻譯通常是兩個漢字，但presentation就是贏得了人心。

2003年，上海的一位乘客不清楚機票上寫的“PVG”是指浦東機場，按照老習慣到虹橋機場乘坐飛機，結(jié)果錯過了飛機起飛時間，于是狀告航空公司，乘客勝訴。我們不知道，如今的機票有沒有做相應的修改，但“洋涇浜”的危害可見一斑。

要求絕對純粹的語言是不可能的，也是沒有必要的。保護漢語，要做的有許多，如推廣經(jīng)典漢語文學閱讀。關于洋涇浜的是是非非的討論進來已越發(fā)安靜了，時間在證明，這一現(xiàn)象并沒對漢語的根基產(chǎn)生破壞作用，因而洋涇浜不是保護漢語運動的敵人。有些洋涇浜詞將會得到合適的譯名，成為和“幽默”“邏輯”等一樣的漢語規(guī)范用語，同時，新的洋涇浜詞還會出現(xiàn)。網(wǎng)絡時代是個變化快的時代，在網(wǎng)絡上除了速食文化外，我們也能欣慰地看到國人對于漢語的關注和討論，有人在提醒，在呼吁，漢語的聲音就不會弱下去。所以，讓洋涇浜們自生自滅，我們可敬的漢語衛(wèi)士們不用太操心。ALinguaFrancaisalsousedforcommunicationpurposesbetweendifferentgroupsofpeople,eachspeakingadifferentlanguage.Itisviewedasaninternationalmeansofcommunication.Eg.LatinwasaLinguaFrancaintheMiddleAgesandFrenchbecameaLinguaFrancainthe18thcentury.TodayEnglishisconsideredaLinguaFranca.3.TabooandEuphemismTabooreferstoprohibitionofasetofbehaviorsthatshouldbeavoidedbecausetheyareoffensiveandimpolite.

e.g.

InWesterncountriesmanypeoplecon