Basic Writing Skills.ppt

1、Basic Writing Skills,耿蕾蕾 傅 鵬 孔 頡 朱曉舒,Contents,Definition,comparison and contrast,classification,argumentation,Definition,Definition,A definition is the enclosing of a wilderness of ideas within a wall of words. 在科技寫作中常需要對一些物質(zhì)、物體、機器或操作下定義，如何寫出一個正確的定義是一件非常重的事情。,Example: A catalyst is a substance which

2、 alters the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs, but is itself unchanged at the end of the reaction.,催化劑是一種能改變化學(xué)反應(yīng)速度但在反應(yīng)后其本身不變的物質(zhì)。,Warm-up Activity,Whats the definition of “pride” in a dictionary? Is “pride” a positive or negative conception? What do you think of the concept of “pride”? Can you

3、 cite some examples? What can you conclude about “pride”?,Example : A tornado may be identified as a strong dangerous wind which forms itself into an upside-down spinning cone and is able to destroy buildings as it moves across the ground. A rain forest is a forest in a tropical area which receives

4、a lot of rain.,Summary,Three basic elements: A. the term to be defined B. the class the term belongs to C. the characteristics of the term Analytical or formal definition (dictionary-based definition) Simple definition(synonyms),Summary,Definition: a. Simple definition the term + class + differentia

5、ting characteristics e.g. A tornado is usually brewed on a hot, sticky day with south winds and an ominous sky b. Extended definition The organization of the meaning of a concept beyond the limits of the simple definition,Extended Definition,Supporting details 1. additional information physical feat

6、ures; functions; behavioral characteristics; symptoms; details and examples; origins 2. methods of development Classification; Comparison it is not holding a well-paid job.” (to define the word “ happiness”),Are they good definitions?,1. Computer literacy is the state of being literate about compute

7、rs. 2. The aperture, or lens opening, of a camera must be adjusted to accommodate the available amount of light. 3. An animal that has a bushy tail and black fur with white markings. 4.Love means positive feeling for someone else.,Pitfalls and Strategies,Writing Techniques,注意: 首先，定義不等于例子，不能拿例子來下定義，但

8、是定義之后可以跟例子。 其次，定義的第一部分必須有普遍的意義，即要定義的失誤首先要用他的普通類別詞（general class word）來描述。 再者，定義的后半部分為細節(jié)，比如特征、來源和用途等。,1、定義公式（Definition Formula） 2、定義中的被動態(tài)從句 3、定義中的主動態(tài)從句 4、不用關(guān)系從句的定義句 5、特殊定義句 6、擴展定義,Writing Techniques,1.定義公式（Definition Formula）,最常用的一種寫定義的方式： An x/y is a/an 主語中不用定冠詞the 最常用的動詞為is，有時也用到can be defined as。

9、 常用到device這個詞來指以發(fā)明或者已制出的任何東西。,Example: An engine is a device which converts one form of energy into another. 發(fā)動機是一種把能量從一種形態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榱硪环N形態(tài)的裝置。,在進行寫作時可以把device細分成4類，即apparatus, instrument, machine, tool,Example: 1.An apparatus is a number of devices which are put together for a particular purpose, as in phy

10、sics or chemistry experiments. 2.An instrument is a device is used in doing something, often of a sensitive nature. Typical examples are a microscope and an ammeter.,器械是指為了特定的目的，例如物理或化學(xué)實驗而安裝到一起的一些裝置。,儀器通常是被用于做事的具有敏感性之的裝置，典型的例子有顯微鏡和電流表。,1.定義公式（Definition Formula）,在進行寫作時可以把device細分成4類，即apparatus, inst

11、rument, machine, tool,Example: 3. A machine is a mechanical device which is used to provide power. 4. A tool is a simple device , often without any moving parts. Examples are a hammer and a spanner.,機器是一種用于提供動力的機械裝置。,工具通常是一種沒有任何運動部件的簡單裝置，例如錘子和扳手。,1.定義公式（Definition Formula）,主語只能用單數(shù)不能用復(fù)數(shù)，如果用復(fù)數(shù)則成為一般性描述

12、（general description）,而不是定義。,An element is a substance which can not be divided chemically into simpler substances. Element are substances that can not be divided chemically into simpler substances. 元素是一種不能用化學(xué)方法分解成更簡單物質(zhì)的物質(zhì)。,1.定義公式（Definition Formula）,2.定義中的被動態(tài)從句,定義中，常用被動態(tài)從句,An alloy is a metallic su

13、bstance which is composed of two or more elements. 合金是由兩種或兩種以上元素組成的金屬物質(zhì)。 A pump is a machine which is used for transferring a liquid or a gas from one place to another. 泵是用來把液體或氣體由一個地方傳送到另一個地方的機器。,2.定義中的被動態(tài)從句,被動態(tài)從句可以縮短,Aluminum is a metal which is produced from bauxite. Aluminum is a metal produced

14、from bauxite. 鋁是由鋁土礦制造出來的金屬。,A knife is an instrument which is used for cutting. A knife is an instrument for cutting. 小刀是用來切割的工具。,注意：含for的結(jié)構(gòu)，只能用于device類型的定義。,當(dāng)定義句中有used for時，句子可以進一步縮短。,3.定義中的主動態(tài)從句,在科技論文寫作中并不是都用被動語態(tài)，有時也用主動語態(tài)。,Example： Stainless steel is an alloy which does not corrode. 不銹鋼是一種不腐蝕的合金。

15、,主動語態(tài)從句中的wh-word+verb結(jié)構(gòu)可以變換為verb+ing而使句子縮短。,3.定義中的主動態(tài)從句,A tangent is a straight line which touches a curve at one point. A tangent is a straight line touching a curve at one point. 切線是一條與曲線的一點相接觸的直線。,Acoustics is a branch of physics. The properties of sounds are studied in it. Acoustics is a branch

16、of physics in which the properties of sounds are studied. 聲學(xué)是研究聲音的性質(zhì)的物理學(xué)分支。,4.不用關(guān)系從句的定義句,在定義中，一般不用關(guān)系從句，而用with+名詞短語，with the property of + V+ing。,A triangle is a plane figure which has three sides. A triangle is a plane figure with three sides. 三角形是有三邊的平面圖形。,Tungsten is a metal which retains hardness

17、 at red-heat. Tungsten is a metal with the property of retaining hardness at red-heat. 鎢是在紅熱時能保持硬性的合金。,5.特殊定義句,以上討論的是一般定義，即被定義的事物是沒有其他名次或形容詞在一起的單一名詞，但特殊定義（specific definition）所定義的是一類事物中具有某種特征的一類，如：,A key-hole saw is a saw with a narrow blade, used for cutting holes in wood. 鑰孔鋸是一種用于鋸木頭孔的有窄鋸片的鋸。 An e

18、quilateral triangle is a triangle with all three sides equal in length. 等邊三角形是三邊等長的三角形。 A suspension bridge is a bridge with a long central span suspended from cables. 懸橋是指在中間有很長的跨度且用鋼纜懸吊起來的橋。,由以上例子可以看出，特殊定義句中在動詞be之后，必須有普通類別詞（general class word），在大多數(shù)情況下，這個普通類別詞是和主語中的相同，但有時也例外。如：,5.特殊定義句,A Wheatstone

19、 bridge is an apparatus for measuring the resistance of an electric circuit. 惠斯登電橋是用于測定電流的儀器。,6.擴展定義,two A/An x is a yIt consists of three + main parts four these,A pair of spectacles is a device for correcting eye-sight. It consists of three main parts: a lens for each eye and a frame. 眼鏡是用于矯正視力的工具

20、，它由三個主要部件組成：一對鏡片華為一個鏡架。,以上討論的都是一句話的比較簡單的定義句，但是有時有的定義需要較長和比較復(fù)雜的句子來表達。,1.定義 + 主要部件,6.擴展定義,2. 定義+例子,An acid is a compound which neutralizes a solution of sodium hydroxide such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid. 酸是一種能中和氫氧化鈉溶液的化合物，例如硫酸和硝酸。,注意：不能用as代替such as；后一個例子之前要用or。,6.擴展定義,3. 定義+use Therefore,it is use

21、d A/An x is a y+ Consequently, + one of its main uses As a result,Aluminum is a metal which is light in weight. Therefore/ Consequently, it is used for making aircraft. As a result, one of its main uses is in the manufacture of aircraft. 鋁是一種輕金屬，因此，它被用于飛機制造。,comparison and contrast,Warm-up activity:

22、 Please find out the similarities and differences in the following two pictures:,If you are figuring out the similarities, you are making a comparison of these two pictures.,If you are figuring out the differences, you are making a contrast of these two pictures.,Comparison or contrast paragraphs ar

23、e used to show similarities or differences between two things. A comparison paragraph focuses on similarities, while a contrast paragraph on differences. Comparison and contrast are frequently combined to give a full treatment of a topic. However, A paragraph usually concentrates only on similaritie

24、s or differences, not both at the same time.,The purposes of Comparison and Contrast,With comparison and contrast, the purpose is not just to point out similarities and differences or advantages and disadvantages, but to present information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something f

25、amiliar; to show the superiority of one thing by contrasting it with another; to show the similarities or differences of two things to help the reader evaluate them.,The signal words of comparison,The words that indicate similarity in meaning, such as “l(fā)ike”, “alike”, “similar to” and so on. The wor

26、ds that express parallel in structure, such as “eitheror”, “not onlybut also”, “bothand” and so on.,Some sample expressions: There are several similarities between A and B. A and B have the same view of the world. A and B have a lot in common. In common with A, B prefers meat to fish. A resembles B

27、in that A is also interested in collecting stamps. Just as A likes to be quiet, B likes to stay alone. Like A, B likes outdoor sports. A likes swimming. The same with A, B also likes swimming. A and B are the same in that they both like swimming in the sea. A and B have the same interests. A likes s

28、wimming in a pond; similarly, B likes swimming in the sea. Both A and B have long hair. A likes fishing. B likes fishing, too. A likes swimming, so does B.,The signal words of contrast,The words that express “difference” in meaning, such as “be different from”, “differ from” and so on. The words tha

29、t present comparative degree, such as “fasterthan”, “tallerthan” and so on. The words that indicate a turning or concession, such as “though”, “but” and so on.,Some sample expressions: Unlike A, B likes outdoor sports. In contrast to A, B likes outdoor sports. Different from A, B likes outdoor sport

30、s. Contrary to A, B likes outdoor sports. As opposed to A, B likes outdoor sports. A is different from B in that B likes outdoor sports. A differs from B in that B likes outdoor sports. A contrasts with B in that B likes outdoor sports. A likes indoor activities; however/ in contrast/ by contrast/ o

31、n the other hand, B likes outdoor sports. A likes indoor activities; B, however, likes outdoor sports. A likes indoor activities, but B likes outdoor sports. A likes indoor activities, whereas / while B likes outdoor sports. A is not as active as B. A is more /less active than B.,How to write a para

32、graph by comparison and contrast,The topic sentence In a comparison or contrast paragraph, usually, the topic sentence introduces the two things to be compared or contrasted and the controlling idea-points of comparison or contrast. The topic sentence should also indicate the emphasis of the paragra

33、ph, either similarities or differences.,Compare the following two topic sentences and see which one is better. 1) Although both our pet cats look lovely, their differences in temperament is constant source of amusement. 2) Our two pet cats are quite different.,Topic sentence 2 is too general to be d

34、eveloped in one paragraph. it does not restrict the controlling ideas as to what points of the two cats to contrast.,Topic sentence 1 not only indicates the point to be contrasted but also reveals that the purpose of the writer is not just to show the difference but to reveal a source of amusement.,

35、Topic sentence 1 acknowledges the obvious similarity of the two pet cats, and then indicates the differences as the focus of the paragraph.,The supporting sentences,There are two basic patterns for the structure of the supporting sentences in a comparison and contrast paragraph.,The alternating patt

36、ern (point-to-point),The block pattern (side-to-side),examining one thing thoroughly and then start the other,examining two things at the same time, discussing them point by point,Suppose we are to compare two cars: car X and car Y. The points to be compared might be: 1) the cost of maintenance 2) p

37、erformance 3) comfort,The alternating pattern,Topic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of the cost of maintenance, performance and comfort. Supporting sentences: point 1: Cost of maintenance point 2: Performance point 3: Comfort,Car X,Car Y,Car X,Car X,Car Y,Car Y,Life in the city is quite

38、different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more low-key than that in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they must go to one of th

39、e public parks. One the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but people living in suburban areas must go into the city for entertainment.,The block patt

40、ern,Topic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of the cost of maintenance, performance and comfort. Supporting sentences: Side A: Car X1. Cost of Maintenance2. Performance3. Comfort Side B: Car Y1. Cost of maintenance2. Performance3. Comfort,The points of comparison or contrast are the same a

41、nd that they are discussed in the same order under each side.,There is an essential difference between a news story, as understood by a newspaperman or a wire-service writer, and the newsmagazine story. The chief purpose of the conventional news story is to tell what happened. It starts with the mos

42、t important information and continues into increasingly inconsequential details, not only because the reader may not read beyond the first paragraph but because an editor working on galley proofs a few minutes before press time likes to be able to cut freely from the end of the story. A news magazin

43、e is very different. It is written to be read consecutively from beginning to end, and each of its stories is designed, following the critical theories of Edgar Allen Poe, to create one emotional effect. The news, what happened that week, may be told in the beginning, the middle, or the end; for the

44、 purpose is not to throw information at the reader but to seduce him into reading the whole story, and into accepting the dramatic (and often political) point being made.,The diagram of the two patterns,alternating,block,The use of the two patterns,The block pattern is useful in short writing where

45、only a few points to be discussed. The alternating pattern is preferable in long writing in which there are numerous points under discussion. Generally speaking, the block pattern is used less often than the alternating pattern.,The concluding sentence,No matter whether it is a comparison or contras

46、t paragraph, the concluding sentence is usually a restatement of the topic sentence or a summary of the points compared or contrasted in the development of the paragraph.,My hometown is quite different from what it used to be. Just a little more that ten years ago my hometown was a small quiet place

47、. The houses were small and mean. The streets were for the most part narrow and winding. There were few people in the streets and shops. Now, everything has changed. Looking in every direction from the center of the town, one sees a long succession of giant, imposing buildings. The streets, whether

48、long or short, are straight, spacious, and well-shaded. Crowds of people can be found here and there, hurrying, noisy, and well-dressed. From a dull little village with clusters of shabby houses in the past, my hometown has now transformed into a big city, cheerful, colorful, and prosperous.,The con

49、cluding sentence restates the main idea “different” in the topic sentence.,My hometown is quite different from what it used to be. Just a little more that ten years ago my hometown was a small quiet place. The houses were small and mean. The streets were for the most part narrow and winding. There w

50、ere few people in the streets and shops. Now, everything has changed. Looking in every direction from the center of the town, one sees a long succession of giant, imposing buildings. The streets, whether long or short, are straight, spacious, and well-shaded. Crowds of people can be found here and t

51、here, hurrying, noisy, and well-dressed. From a dull little village with clusters of shabby houses in the past, my hometown has now transformed into a big city, cheerful, colorful, and prosperous.,The concluding sentence restates the main idea “different” in the topic sentence.,(1) Though the govern

52、ments of Great Britain and the United States are quite different, they share basic similarities in some aspects. (2) First, the British Parliament is made up of two separate houses - the British House of Commons, and the British House of Lords. (3) Likewise, the U. S. Congress has two divisions - th

53、e House of Representatives and the Senate. (4) Next, the essential function of the British Parliament is to make laws; a bill has to be presented to both houses for debate to get passed before it can become a law. (5) In the United States, the House of Representatives and the Senate play similar fun

54、ctions. (6) Third, the Prime Minister in Great Britain appoints the members of the cabinet, who serve as advisors and make government policies. (7) In the same manner, the U. S. President appoints his cabinet, which is composed of heads of the governmental departments. (8) Finally, the British monar

55、ch (queen or king) has the right to veto any law. (9) The U. S. President can also refuse to sign any bill passed by the Congress.,(1) Though the governments of Great Britain and the United States are quite different, they share basic similarities in some aspects. (2) First, the British Parliament i

56、s made up of two separate houses - the British House of Commons, and the British House of Lords. (3) Likewise, the U. S. Congress has two divisions - the House of Representatives and the Senate. (4) Next, the essential function of the British Parliament is to make laws; a bill has to be presented to

57、 both houses for debate to get passed before it can become a law. (5) In the United States, the House of Representatives and the Senate play similar functions. (6) Third, the Prime Minister in Great Britain appoints the members of the cabinet, who serve as advisors and make government policies. (7)

58、In the same manner, the U. S. President appoints his cabinet, which is composed of heads of the governmental departments. (8) Finally, the British monarch (queen or king) has the right to veto any law. (9) The U. S. President can also refuse to sign any bill passed by the Congress.,Which sentence is

59、 the topic sentence? And what is the controlling idea?,What are the main ideas of the compared points?,the form of the government,the law making function,the appointment of the cabinet,the veto right,What pattern does this paragraph employ?,Please underline the signal words for comparison,(1) Though the governments of Great Britain and the United States are quite different, they share basic similarities in some aspects. (2) First, the British Parliament is made up of two separate houses - the British House of Commons, and the