《英語語言學(xué)》復(fù)習(xí)要點(diǎn)

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Togivethe definitionlanguageisameansofverbalItisinstrumentalsocialandconventional.Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageoralternativelyasthescientificstudyoflanguage.ItconcernswiththesystematicstudyoflanguageoradisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatestheoriesastohowlanguageDesignfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacementetc.ArbitrarinessreferstoformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningLanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsoundsevenwithonomatopoeicwords.Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructure .Theunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesof?thelowerorthebasiclevel----thesoundunitsorphonemeswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.?thehigherlevel----morphemesandwordswhicharemeaningfulCreativityreferstoWordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusageDisplacementreferstothefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresentrealorimaginedmattersinthepastpresentorfutureorinfarawayplaces.ItmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjectseventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentintimeandspaceatthemomentofcommunicationJakobson’sclassificationoffunctionsoflanguage.Jakobson:InhisarticleLinguisticsandPoetics(1960)definedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.1).Referentialfunction所指功能2).Poeticfunction詩學(xué)功能3).Emotivefunction感情功能4).Conativefunction意動功能5).Phaticfunction交感功能6).Metalingual元語言功能HuZhuanglin’classificationoffunctionsoflanguageandusesomeexamplestoillustratethem.1).Informativefunction信息功能2).Interpersonalfunction人際功能3).Performativefunction4).Emotivefunction感情功能5).Phaticcommunion交感性談話6).Recreationalfunction7).Metalingualfunction元語言功能WhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleandChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoSaussure,(1)Langueisabstract,paroleisspecifictothespeakingsituation;(2)Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,paroleis alwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;(3)Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.AccordingtoN.Chomsky, Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumber of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence;Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chapter2SpeechSoundsPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandreceived.Itisconcernedwiththeactualphysicalarticulation,transmissionandperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonologyisessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsounds.Itisconcernedwiththeabstractandmentalaspectofthesoundsinlanguage.PhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunicationLipsTeethTeethridge齒齦Hardpalate硬腭Softpalate(velum)軟腭Uvula小舌TipoftongueBladeoftongue舌面Backoftonguecords聲帶Pharyngealcavity咽腔Nasalcavity鼻腔Phone（音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscreetsegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inmouth)Phoneme（音位Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingone wordoroneshapeofafromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)allophone(音位變體):phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme./ /=phoneme []=phone { }=setofallophonesIPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Minimalpairs 最小對立體Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning; 2)onlyonephonemedifferent;3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephonetic environment.e.g.aminimalpair:lit-lip;phone-toneminimalset: pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,complementarydistribution互補(bǔ)分布Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theymightformacontrast;e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit];Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydon’tdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontextSuprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征—featuresthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegment,suchasstress（重音lengt（音程rhythm（節(jié)奏tone（音調(diào)，intonation（語調(diào)）及junctur（音渡．Chapter3 Lexicon/MorphologyWordThreesensesof“word”Aphysicallydefinableunit: aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopauseblank.Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm.AgrammaticalunitIdentificationofwordsSomefactorscanhelpusidentifywords:StabilityRelativeuninterruptibilityAminimumfreeformTheclassificationofwordWordscanbeclassifiedintermsof:Variablevs.invariablewords可變詞/不可變詞)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords (語法詞/詞匯詞)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords(封閉詞/開放詞)wordclass(詞類)Variablevs.invariablewords可變詞/不可變詞)theformerreferstowordshavinginflectivechanges（屈折變化）whilethelatterreferstowordshavingnosuchendings.Variablewords:follow;follows;following;followedInvariablewords:since;when;seldom;through;helloGrammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords(functionwordsandcontentwords.語法詞/詞匯詞)Theformerreferstothosewordsexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions(連詞),prepositions（介詞）,articles(冠詞),andpronouns（代詞）;thelatterreferstowordshavinglexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionetc.suchasn.,v.,adj.,andadv..Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords (封閉詞/開放詞)theformerreferstowordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited;n.,prep.,conj.,thelatterofwhichthemembershipisinfiniteorunlimited. e.g.:n.,v.,adj.,adv.wordclass詞類)Thetraditionallyrecognizedwordclassesare:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Morewordclasseshavebeenintroducedintogrammar:particles小品詞/語助詞(goby,lookfor,comeup);auxiliaries助詞(can,be,will);pro-form替代詞(do,so);determiners前置詞/限定詞(all,every,few,plentyof,this).TheformationofwordMorphology形態(tài)學(xué)Definition：Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Thetwofields(p64)Inflectionalmorphology:thestudyofinflectionsDerivationalmorphology:thestudyofword-formationLexicalchangeLexicalchangeproper（詞本身的變化）Invention新造詞Blending混合詞Abbreviation縮合詞Acronymback-formation逆構(gòu)詞analogicalcreation類比造詞Borrowing借詞、外來詞definition: branchofinternalstructureofbywhichwordsareTerminology術(shù)語解釋

Morphologyisawhichstudieswordsandtheformed.Morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaning,whichcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Freemorphemes:morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves．Boundmorphemes:morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsInflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.Derivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,addedtoexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtoposition:prefix,suffixandinfix.Chapter4SyntaxFromWordtoTextSyntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.EndocentricConstructions:isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.ExocentricConstructions:referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”Category:referstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voicethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:relationsofposition 位置關(guān)系Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.relationsofsubstitutability可替代性關(guān)系TheRelationofSubstitutabilityrefers toclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutablefor eachothergrammaticallysentenceswiththesamestructure.relationsofco-occurrence 同現(xiàn)關(guān)系Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Immediateconstituentanalysisisaformoflinguisticreviewthatbreaksdownlongerphrasesorsentencesintotheirconstituentparts,usuallyintosinglewords.ThiskindofanalysisissometimesabbreviatedasICanalysis,andgetsusedextensivelybyawiderangeoflanguageexperts.Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:CoordinationandsubordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.CharacteristicsofsubjectsWordorder:SubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatementPro-forms(代詞形式):ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubjectAgreementwiththeverb:Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverbContentquestions():Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchangedTagquestion):Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.Explainthedifferencebetweensenseandreferencefromthefollowingfouraspects:Awordhavingreferencemusthavesense;Awordhavingsensemightnothavereference;Acertainsensecanberealizedbymorethanonereference;4)AcertainreferencecanbeexpressedbymorethanonesenseThedistinctionbetween“sense”and“reference”iscomparabletothatbetween“connotation”and“denotation”.Theformerreferstosomeabstractproperties,whilethelatterreferstosomeconcreteentities.Firstly,tosomeextent,wecansaythateverywordhasasense,i.e.,someconceptualcontent;otherwisewewouldnotbeabletouseitorunderstandit.Secondly,butnoteverywordhasareference.Therearelinguisticexpressionswhichcanneverbeusedtorefertoanything,forexample,thewordsso,very,maybe,if,not,andall.Thesewordsdoofcoursecontributemeaningtothesentencesinwhichtheyoccurandthushelpsentencesdenote,buttheythemselvesdonotidentifyentitiesintheworld.Theyareintrinsicallynon-referringterms.Andwordslikeghostanddragonrefertoimaginarythings,whichdonotexistinreality.Thirdly,someexpressionswillhavethesamereferenceacrossarangeofutterances, e.g., the Eiffel Toweror the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions sometimesdescribedashavingconstantreference.Othershavetheirreferencestotallydependentoncontext.ExpressionslikeI,you,she,etc.aresaidtohavevariablereferences.Lastly,sometimesareferencemaybeexpressedbymorethanonesense.Forinstance,both‘eveningstar’and‘morningstar’(晚星，啟明星),thoughtheydifferinsense,refertoVenus.Chapter6LanguageandcognitionWhatisCognition?Inpsychologyitisusedtorefertothementalprocessesofanindividualwithparticularrelationtoaviewthatarguesthattheminghasinternalmentalstatesandcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing.Anotherdenefitionismentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenmetaphor&metonymy?Givesomeexamples.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（從一個語域到另一個語域）,notfromawordtoanother.Metonymyisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle （源域）,mentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目標(biāo)域）,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.Metaphorisusedforsubstitution,whilemetonymyisusedforassociation.Metaphorcanmeancondensationandmetonymycanmeandisplacement.Ametonymyactsbycombiningideaswhilemetaphoractsbysuppressingideas.Inametaphor,thecomparisonisbasedonthesimilarities,whileinmetonymythecomparisonisbasedoncontiguity.--Forexample,thesentence‘heisatigerinclass’isametaphor.Herethewordtigerisusedinsubstitutionfordisplayinganattributeofcharacteroftheperson.Thesentence‘thetigercalledhisstudentstothemeetingroom’isametonymy.Herethereisnosubstitution;insteadthepersonisassociatedwithatigerforhisnature..Metaphorisactuallyacognitivetoolthathelpsusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus..Metaphorisaconceptualmappig概念映射,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（從一個語域到另一個語域）,notfromawordtoanother.isacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,vehicle（源域）providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目標(biāo)域）,withinthesamedomain.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition(1)Holophrasticstage（單詞句階段）soundpatternsPhoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.Two-wordstage:around18mThree-word-utterancestageFluentgrammaticalconversationstageChapter7 Language,cultureandsocietytherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought?Generally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencoded andtransmittedinL.Thereexistsacloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture.ThisisevidencedbythefindingsofanthropologistssuchasMalinowski, Firth,Baos,SapirandWhorf.Thestudyoftherelationbetweenlanguageandthecontextinwhichitisusedistheculturalstudyoflanguage.WhasSapir-WhorfHypothesis?Giveyourcommentonit.EdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressuniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:a.Similaritybetweenlanguageisrelative;b.thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,thediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Chapter8LanguageinusePragmatics:Thestudyoflanguageinuseandthestudyofmeaningincontext,aswellasthestudyofspeakers’meaning,utterancemeaning&contextualmeaning..What’syourunderstandingofconversationalimplicature?Useoneortwoexamplestodiscusstheviolationofitsmaxims.Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.SinceCPisregulative,CPcan be violated.Violationof CPand itsmaximsleadsconversationalimplicature.Whatarethemaindifferencesbetweenpragmaticsandsemantics?Semanticsandpragmaticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning.Theessentialdifferenceliesinwhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnot,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitis,thestudyiscarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.Semanticsstudiessentencesasunitsoftheabstractlinguisticsystemwhilepragmaticsstudiesutterancesasinstancesofthesystem.Theformerstopsatthesentencelevel;thelatterlooksatbiggerchunksofconversation.Theformerregardssentencesasstableproducts;thelattertreatsutterancesasdynamicprocesses.Theformeranalysessentencesinisolation;Thelatteranalysesutterancesincloseconnectionwiththeircontextsofsituation.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?答：Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontext.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inordertohaveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethecontextintotheirconsiderationsoastoaffecttherightmeaningandintention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetweenthemliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,whilesemanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextintoconsiderationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicature?答：CooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:Themaximofquantity①M(fèi)akeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange). ②Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality①Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.②Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation Berelevant.Themaximofmanner①Avoidobscurityofexpression. ②Avoidambiguity.③Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).④Beorderly.Chapter9 LanguageandliteratureWhatis‘foregrounding’?Inapurelylinguisticsense,theterm‘foregrounding’isusedtorefertonewinformation,incontrasttoelementsinthesentencewhichformthebackgroundagainstwhichthenewelementsaretobeunderstoodbythelistener/reader.Inthewidersenseofstylistics,textlinguistics,andliterarystudies,itisatranslationoftheCzechaktualisace(actualization),atermcommonwiththePragueStructuralists.TheEnglishterm‘foregrounding’hascometomeanseveralthingsatonce:-the(psycholinguistic)processesbywhich-duringthereadingact-somethingmaybespecialprominence;-specificdevices(asproducedbytheauthor)locatedinthetextitself.Itisalsoemployedtoindicatethespecificpoeticeffectonthereader;-ananalyticcategoryinordertoevaluateliterarytexts,ortosituatethemhistorically,ortoexplaintheirimportanceandculturalsignificance,ortodifferentiateliteraturefromothervarietiesoflanguageuse,suchaseverydayconversationsorscientificreports.Literallanguageandfigurativelanguage-Alanguageiscalledliteralwhenwhatismeanttobeconveyedissameaswhatthewordtowordmeaningofwhatissaid.Incontrastthefigurativelanguage,thewordsareusedtoimplymeaningwhichisotherthantheirstrictdictionarymeaning.-Literallanguagereferstowordsthatdonotdeviatefromtheirdefinedmeaning.Figurativelanguagereferstowords,andgro